Proverb Definition and Examples

A proverb is a short, pithy statement of a general truth, one that condenses common experience into memorable form. Or, as defined by Miguel de Cervantes, a short sentence based on long experience. Adjective: proverbial. Many proverbs rely on antithesis: Out of sight, out of mind; Penny wise, pound foolish; A bird in the hand is worth two in the bush. In classical rhetoric, the amplification of a proverb was one of the exercises known as the progymnasmata.  The study of proverbs is called paremiology. Etymology From the Latin, word Examples and Observations [Proverbs are] brief, memorable, and intuitively convincing formulations of socially sanctioned advice.Injustice anywhere is a threat to justice everywhere.Proverbs are strategies for dealing with situations. Another name for strategies might be attitudes.Pop Cultural ProverbsWe owe many of our current proverbs to pop cultural sources, such as songs, movies, TV shows, and commercials. Sometimes these sources bring a preexisting saying to wider popularity, while other times they launch brand-new oral traditions. Think of If you build it, they will come (from the movie Field of Dreams, based on a W.P. Kinsella story) or Freedom’s just another word for nothing left to lose (from the song Me and Bobby McGee, written by Kris Kristofferson and Fred Foster).Proverbs and AphorismsThe aphorism is a personal observation inflated into a universal truth, a private posing as a general. A proverb is anonymous human history compressed to the size of a seed.Proverbs as Rhetorical Exercises- [ P]roverbs are either persuasive or expository. Examples of contemporary proverbs that persuade people to action are The squeaky wheel gets the grease; Wake up and smell the roses; and The early bird gets the worm. Proverbs that dissuade people from doing things are If you drive, dont drink and Dont count your chickens before they hatch. Explanatory proverbs include Rolling stones gather no moss and The spirit is willing, but the flesh is weak. Any of these proverbs can be amplified according to the ancient directions for doing so: begin by praising either the wisdom of the proverb or its author (if the author is known); paraphrase or explain the proverbs meaning; give proof of the proverbs truth or accuracy; give comparative and contrasting examples; supply testimony from another author; compose an epilogue.Frank Sullivan on the Lighter Side of ProverbsPerhaps we should have a general reconditioning, or reupholstering, of proverbs. It could be done without too much trouble, and econ omically. New materials would not be needed. The old materials that Shakespeare and his great contemporary, Anon, used are still as good as new, and cant be bettered. You cant get stuff like that today. A simple rearrangement of a batch of the more prominent proverbs might do everybody a lot of good. Pronunciation PRAHV-urb Also Known As Adage, maxim, sententia Sources Paul Hernadi, The Tropical Landscape of  Proverbia.  Style, Spring 1999 Martin Luther King, Jr., â€Å"Letter from Birmingham Jail,† April 1963 Kenneth Burke,  The Philosophy of Literary Form Stefan Kanfer, Proverbs or Aphorisms?  Time, July 11, 1983 Sharon Crowley and Debra Hawhee,  Ancient Rhetorics for Contemporary Students, 3rd ed. Pearson, 2004 Frank Sullivan, A Watched Proverb Butters No Parsnips.  The Night the Old Nostalgia Burned Down. Little, Brown, 1953

Motivations Matter The Danger Of Overreaching - 3976 Words

Motivations Matter: The Danger of Overreaching POL: 4885 â€Å"Economic sanction† is frequently used in discourse with the incorrect implication that it is a single course of economic action. In fact, the opposite is true. It actually refers to an entire class of nonviolent actions that are each unique and cannot be argued as whole. Part of the appeal is that sanctions can be a mere nuisance, such as a limit on luxury goods like Rolex watches or Cuban cigars, but on the other hand they have the potential to cripple entire economies or level entire sectors of commerce. To understand it is necessary to make distinctions between them in each individual case. Failure to do so can result in ill-informed, sweeping assertions that have the potential to be dangerous if left uncorrected. Common explanations argue that the most important factors to consider when trying to understand the nature of sanctions are the power dynamic between the sender and receiver and level of international support, but I argue that the most important thing to con sider when trying to understand the nature of sanctions is the motivation behind them. Put differently, the behavior is that is being pressured to change. Depending on the behavior both sides may be very committed or only marginally committed to the sanction effort. Why does the goal have the strongest effect on the type that is used and why shouldn’t the argument for or against the â€Å"success† of sanctions continue? Using a few specific cases thisShow MoreRelatedThe Use Of Coercive Diplomacy On American Politics2909 Words   |  12 Pagesdiscussions of economic sanctions today is that it is too often focused only on the success of sanctions; treating all cases as a single unit that can be simply classified one way or the other, successful or unsuccessful. Such a debate is distracting and overreaching because arguing one way or another for sanctions as a whole is like arguing in absolutes for or against the success of diets. It would be silly to say that diets are always or never successful because there are so many influencing factors to beRead MoreAmerica s War On Drugs3748 Words   |  15 Pages The number of those fallen will be calculated by the legalization of drugs. There deaths can be compared to a soldier killed in battle if drugs become legal. The stories of convicted felons families, friends, and communities are shaped by the overreaching arm of the prison industrial complex. This â€Å"war on drugs,† which all subsequent presidents have embraced, has created a behemoth of courts, jails, and prisons that have done little to decrease the use of drugs while doing much to create confusionRead MoreTop 1 Cause for Project Failure65023 Words   |  261 Pagesprivate sector Programme! 1. [pic] Anish Mathai Mathew [PMP|MBA] Temenos T24 PROGRAM MANAGER at Union National Bank @Karl: Thanks for your comment and the great example. Guess in that case you d agree that LUCK (no matter how small), does play a role ;) .... [Mathew@PM4K] @ http://www.anishmathaimathew.blogspot.com 2. [pic] Nico Viergever Independent Management Consulting Professional / Trainer PRINCE2 MSP Another discussionRead MoreCorporation (Fisch) Outline Penn Law Essay62808 Words   |  252 PagesInherent/Implicit Authority: Gives a general agent the power to bind a principal, whether disclosed or undisclosed, to an unauthorized K as long as the general agent would ordinarily have the power to enter such a K and the third party does not know matters stand differently in this case. Rst. 2nd 8A, 161, 194. Rst. 3rd 2.05, 2.06, 2.07.(based on the general agent power and role.) †¢ Gallant Ins. Co. v. Isaac (Ind. App. 2000)(there is no manifestation made by the insurance company

Harmonizing Research, Practice Free Essays

string(128) " Louie Suthers of Australia notes that in her varied country one can see differences in starting ages of pre-primary education\." Harmonizing Research, Practice, and Policy in Early Childhood Music: A Chorus of International Voices (Part 2) Lori A. Custodero Lily Chen-Hafteck a b a b Music and Music Education program at Teachers College, Columbia University Music Department, Kean University, New Jersey Version of record first published: 07 Aug 2010. To cite this article: Lori A. We will write a custom essay sample on Harmonizing Research, Practice or any similar topic only for you Order Now Custodero Lily Chen-Hafteck (2008): Harmonizing Research, Practice, and Policy in Early Childhood Music: A Chorus of International Voices (Part 2), Arts Education Policy Review, 109:3, 3-8 To link to this article: http://dx. doi. org/10. 3200/AEPR. 109. 3. 3-8 PLEASE SCROLL DOWN FOR ARTICLE Full terms and conditions of use: http://www. tandfonline. com/page/terms-and-conditions This article may be used for research, teaching, and private study purposes. Any substantial or systematic reproduction, redistribution, reselling, loan, sub-licensing, systematic supply, or distribution in any form to anyone is expressly forbidden. The publisher does not give any warranty express or implied or make any representation that the contents will be complete or accurate or up to date. The accuracy of any instructions, formulae, and drug doses should be independently verified with primary sources. The publisher shall not be liable for any loss, actions, claims, proceedings, demand, or costs or damages whatsoever or howsoever caused arising directly or indirectly in connection with or arising out of the use of this material. Copyright  © 2008 Heldref Publications Harmonizing Research, Practice, and Policy in Early Childhood Music: A Chorus of International Voices (Part 2) LORI A. CUSTODERO and LILY CHEN-HAFTECK Editor’s note. Lori A. Custodero and Lily Chen-Hafteck served as guest editors for both Part 1 and Part 2 of the special issue International Policies on Early Childhood Music Education: Local and Global Issues Revealed. n the November/December 2007 issue of Arts Education Policy Review, readers were introduced to early childhood music policies in Brazil, England, Kenya, Puerto Rico, South Africa, and the United States. In this collection, a second ensemble of experts from Australia, China, Denmark, Korea, Israel, and Taiwan joins them. Like the previous issue, these authors presented papers or workshops at an International Society for Music Education, Early Childhood Music Education Seminar in Taipei in 2006 and wrote new articles for inclusion here. They responded to the same charge as the previous authors to answer the following questions: †¢ What policies currently exist in your country for early childhood music education? †¢ To what extent do these policies meet the needs of children in your country? †¢ How are teachers prepared to teach early childhood music in your country? †¢ In what ways do local and global cultures figure into the policies and practices of early childhood music in your country? Additionally, we offered the following questions, to be addressed at the author’s discretion: †¢ Do different musical cultures require different instructional approaches? And, conversely, are certain music instructional approaches culture specific? How does this impact policy and practice of early childhood music in your country? †¢ What are the potential risks and rewards of mandating multicultural musical experiences for young children? Finally, we asked authors to address any issues specific to their regions and to make concrete suggestions regarding policy for their countries. Salient themes emerged addressing what was taught and who was responsible for that content. In many ways these two conditions are inseparable, interrelated through the social nature of musical experiences. In these accounts, we also see ways in which content and delivery shape reception and how that process, in turn, defines and is defined by culture. Examining these geographical contexts raises questions about atti- I tudes, practices, and policies concerning early childhood music education that have significance for many of us. We chose three threads of inquiry from the many that weave these single texts into a textual fugue: (a) ensions between child and adult culture; (b) competing influences by global, regional, and local agencies on standards and curricula; and (c) expectations for teacher knowledge and preparation. Competing Cultures: Child and Adult The existence of a musical culture in early childhood, which is distinctly different from the adult culture, is based on studies showing similarities of vocal contours used in communication between infants and mothers ac ross cultures (Papousek 1996), as well as research regarding the differences between music made by children and adults (e. . , Bjorkvold 1992; Campbell 2007; Littleton 1998; Marsh 1995; Moorhead and Pond 1941). Sven-Erik Holgersen’s article on early childhood music in Scandinavia describes practices in Denmark, Sweden, and Norway that are sensitive to the child’s culture. The cultural clash in those regional systems exists between programs that favor an elemental or natural approach to education for the young based on the free play aesthetic and those that see music Vol. 109, No. 3, January/February 2008 3 as a mode of artistic expression requiring learned skills. Lily Chen-Hafteck and Zhoyua Xu and, separately, Jennifer Chau-Ying Leu found preschools in Chinesespeaking countries to have a strong sense of adult culture. Most parents and teachers believe school should stress academic learning rather than play, so that children can achieve high scores on tests and examinations. Chinese culture also stresses study and hard work as important for academic success. In Korea, Nam-Hee Lim and Shunah Chung found that adults believe young children need close supervision and guidance from teachers and parents in their development. Therefore, children’s natural tendency to be playful and creative is not recognized as a core value in school; potential for future success drives decisions. These cultural differences are interactive with and reflective of current conditions and regional history. In China, for example, books were printed with movable type as early as the eighth century, whereas in Europe copies were still drawn by hand until the 1400s. Such a long history of text accessibility elevated reading and writing to a valued skill that was recognizable and sought (Smith 1991). Societal values may offer another lens to interpret early academic emphasis, such as those espoused by Confucius, for whom morality and caring for others, especially family, were primary. In terms of contemporary conditions, Louie Suthers of Australia notes that in her varied country one can see differences in starting ages of pre-primary education. You read "Harmonizing Research, Practice" in category "Papers" In Denmark, the children start at three years of age and continue for four years. In China, pre-primary education starts at four years of age and continues for three years, although care is available in each country mentioned from birth. Also of note, the average student teacher ratio in China is 28:1, differing from Hong Kong’s average ratio of 16:1. The older starting age in China may perpetuate (or reflect interest in) the schooling culture. Leu’s discussion of the importance of family context is relevant to this point, inasmuch as it may provide the space for child culture 4 Arts Education Policy Review to flourish while adult culture is operating at school. Claudia Gluschankof writes about the purposeful creation of materials for the child culture with the development of the New Hebrew Culture in the Israeli territories during the early 1900s. Preschools were created based on the Froebel playcentered model and provide an unusual case in the concentrated production of children’s music in a language that had no such repertoire prior to the kindergartens establishment. The conscious choice to provide young children with cultural tools for understanding at the earliest stages of a community is reminiscent of Sheila Woodward’s discussion concerning the importance of children in nation building in South Africa, featured in the previous issue of this journal. In her conclusion, Gluschankof raises important questions concerning this created canon of songs and the lack of repertoire for Arab-speaking children. Using the idea of child culture as a lens for viewing cultural and educational policies provides a useful way to understand differences and similarities in political systems that define the worlds in which we teach, research, and cohabitate. Such understanding may lead to more focused and meaningful questions that may reveal inequities or alternative directions in music education worthy of exploration. Considerations of these policies regarding conceptions of adulthood and childhood lead directly to curricular influences that we view from a related dialectic: the local and global. Local and Global Influences: Child and World In the first part of this symposium, we focused on the tension between small and large scaled views of what should be taught, each serving a different societal need. In the second part, we speak more specifically to the notion of a national curriculum because it is mentioned in each of the articles collected here. We are interested in questions dealing with how these personal and collective influences affect children’s music education: â€Å"Does governmentmandated standardized curriculum limit possibilities or insure access of quality to all children? † and â€Å"What is the exemplar to which music education should be standardized? † The first question is meant to generate critical thinking regarding what and how policymakers might send messages about music education in the early years; the second is meant to question assumptions we might have surrounding best practice and the cultural nuances that shape it. Suthers, discussing Australia’s situation, is mindful that there is no national music curriculum for pre-primary school and points to a recent reform movement in music education that excluded early childhood experiences. She notes that this leaves teachers feeling isolated and that their work is undervalued. Alternatively, Gluschankoff discusses the children’s music written in Hebrew as somewhat ideological and makes suggestions for addressing the inclusion of additional materials to meet the needs of a multicultural society. One of the ways in which the national curriculum may become nationalistic is in the mandates or recommendations around singing repertoire. The role played by singing in socialization is significant and has been used for centuries to transmit cultural values, to teach language, and to establish qualities of rhythmic energy that typify a way of being; Dissanayake (2000) makes the case for mutuality and belonging as ways the arts are meaningful to us. Inasmuch as collective singing creates a sense of belonging, we have a responsibility to monitor the ways in which we look at the child and the world (see Leu’s article describing ecological systems and Lim and Chung on the supportive role of adults). Chen-Hafteck and Xu also write about the importance of family singing and the differing role of school music. When local knowledge is replaced by chauvinism, music can be decontextualized. Because musicality is deeply rooted in shared experience, (Trevarthen 1999) we need to guard the personal and not expose children’s vulnerability to politicization. Our concern regarding global trends also involves the perception that globalization means movement toward Downloaded by [Macquarie University] at 14:58 28 March 2013 Western ideals. Attention to the local, once again, is necessary to adequately implement any change. In China, for example, although the new educational policies follow the global trends rhetorically, espousing learning through play and stressing personal expression and creativity, its usefulness is severely hampered by conflicting views in the local tradition regarding a deep belief in academic success as the consummate benchmark. Holgerson considers a similar dissonance between local needs and governmental responsibility to all children through the philosophical lens of Bildung, a generative model that keeps the questions about such disconnections at the forefront of practice. Downloaded by [Macquarie University] at 14:58 28 March 2013 Teacher Knowledge: Child and Music Practice policies are perhaps best viewed vis-a-vis teacher preparation— what do we value as knowledge? For most of us, early childhood musical practice involves understanding as much as we can about children while keeping the cultural context in mind. This might include individual experiences that contribute to their uniqueness and developmental trends that might give indications about what to expect in terms of maturation. What knowledge do we need of music? In this issue, the authors discuss the importance of a diverse and culturally responsive repertoire, singing range, quality of recordings, appropriate use of instruments, and sound sensitivity. In this collection of articles, the authors suggest that these two knowledge areas are rarely considered together and that they exist in bifurcation, at least conceptually. Across the globe, there are those who are considered to have knowledge of the child in context (families or generalist teachers) and those who have knowledge of the child in music (specialists). Holgersen describes this dichotomy in practical terms—music activities and music teaching. The goals of using music are indeed varied and the complexity of music leads to multiple possibilities worthy of exploration. Among the authors there is a consensus concerning the need for collaboration between the two areas of expertise with several concrete recommendations. Reasons for this common phenomenon center on the systems in place for teacher preparation and the institutional divisions of disciplines; authors advocate for more carefully structured professional development to help bridge the disciplinary divide. Knowing the body of work of these authors, we are familiar with their efforts to form partnerships with local child care specialists and have been involved with such partnerships at our universities. Child and Adult It is noteworthy that many of the responses are about memories of musical adults who were influential in their music education. Graham Welch (pers. comm. ) offers: I was educated in a Church of England Primary school in London . . . where we sang, often with the local Vicar leading on the piano. I can remember his enthusiasm, quick tempo and intensity of keyboard playing. F or most of us, early childhood musical practice involves understanding as much as we can about children while keeping the cultural context in mind. We believe them to be some of the most meaningful opportunities for our own teacher knowledge. Policy and Personal Voice In addition to the authors featured here, to inform our sense of the historical significance of current situations regarding early childhood music and the breadth to which our profession defines policy, we asked our colleagues involved in international musical education about their memories of early childhood music education and their relationship to policy with the following questions: 1. Reflecting on your childhood before age eight, what were the influences of policy on your music education? . How does this compare with today’s situation for young children? Responses were varied and provided insight through a self-reflective lens. We looked at the seven responses regarding their relatedness to our three topics and to how policy can reach us as individuals in a long-lasting way. Alda Oliveira (pers. comm. ) from Brazil also reflected on a teacher: The first time I went to school I was seven years old. At this age I choose to take piano lessons with a private piano teacher. She was a marvelous teacher since her method included not only playing by reading and singing the notes, but also playing by ear and some popular songs. Family members had a strong musical presence in June Boyce Tillman’s (pers. comm. ) childhood in England: â€Å"My music was regularly singing with and listening to the playing of my paternal grandfather who was the village dance band pianist. † Margre van Gestel (pers. comm. ) of The Netherlands also wrote of related experiences: I had the privilege to be surrounded by a musical family. We had a piano in our home and I spent lots of time behind the piano in my grandmother’s house. My uncles and aunts could play the piano and as a child I enjoyed listening to them. One of my aunts was the ballet teacher in the village and from the age of four I was in her dancing classes. It was normal in my family to sing and play. My father had a good voice and was a soloist in the church choir when he was young; he played the clarinet and was a folkdance Vol. 109, No. 3, January/February 2008 5 teacher during scouting activities. I guess my days were filled with (live) music, not in courses but just all day long. Van Gestel shared a record of family influence: In my baby dairy, when I was 8 months old, my mother wrote: â€Å"Today she clapped her hands. She probably learned that from her grandmother! When you sing Clap your hands she reacts immediately. † One year old: â€Å"When we sing Oh my daddy (a popular song in the sixties) she sings along, ‘daddy, daddy. ’† In South Africa, apartheid led to decisions about schooling for Caroline Van Niekerk (pers. omm. ) that indirectly influenced her musical education by removing her from the direct influences of the national educational system of that time. She also spoke of a contemporary situation in which fighting governmental policies was necessary and of the strength we have to overcome questionable decisions: I had a desperate call just yesterday from someone with a story of how their education faculty, in training teachers for the F oundation Phase, wants to remove music as an optional area of specialization for students. We are now all doing everything in our power to protest such a prospect loudly. But I have also seen what I regard as a promising development, and similar to the situation I witnessed in California when we lived there, more than twenty years ago—as parents of young children realize that the formal education system is not necessarily going to provide their children with what they believe is important, and especially as regards the arts, including music, they start to take responsibility for those things themselves. ntil I was about [age] five) could not get my lessons paid for. Had the place still be in that county I would have been entitled to a bursary to pay for lessons and I would have been able to learn a second instrument. But without that my parents could only afford piano lessons. I am still sad about this, which was simply a matter of geography and the local control of resources. Child and Music The same issues featured authors raised are apparent in the additional pro fessionals’ responses: the lack of resources and teachers. Gary McPherson (pers. comm. links personal memories with policies, of which he sees little change, from his Australian childhood: I have a vague memory of singing in a school choir that was [led] by a general classroom teacher when I was about six or seven, but the group was nothing special so it had no impact on my subsequent musical development. . . . I went back some years ago and had a look at the way music was described in the school curriculum (particularly primary school curriculum). There were all sorts of aids and resources for general primary teachers to use but music wasn’t typically taught well in schools. To be honest, I’m not sure the status of music in the curriculum is any different. Downloaded by [Macquarie University] at 14:58 28 March 2013 These testimonies to strong and positive adult influence suggest that family education is important, as Leu and others advocate in this symposium, with the caveat that the experiences described are with adults perceived as musicians. This suggests we need to exercise caution in defining people in terms of limited musicality and that music education of our children means their children will be better educated. It is interesting that teachers were remembered for the affective qualities they conveyed and through a curricular stance that was relevant to the child. Child and World The relationships among local, state, and global influences are also reflected in these personal accounts. Many of these music professionals took private music lessons and considered their experiences to be nonpolicy driven. Oliveira (pers. comm. ) mentioned the involvement of musicians in music education policy—specifically, the Canto Orfeonico policy under the leadership of composer Villa-Lobos. She recalls that this policy influenced her school education, which included â€Å"group singing and elementary level music theory. † As already discussed, group singing is a common vehicle for politicization. Like Gluschonkof’s report of Israeli songs contributing to nation-building, Boyce Tillman (pers. comm. ) noted that: At [age] seven I went to a school where we had massed singing in the Hall when we sang British folksongs, many of which I still know by heart. We had a book called the New National Song book, which was a deliberate attempt after the war to restore a sense of nationhood. This was used throughout my school career. 6 Arts Education Policy Review Welch wrote of intersecting influences of church and state: I discovered later that the London County Council was very supportive of music in schools generally, although my local experiences as a child were as much to do with the link to the Church and the established ethos of including singing as a natural part of the school day. Ana Lucia Frega (pers. comm. ) describes a similar situation in her native Argentina. Early childhood music courses were not always taught by a specialist . . . his means that some problems arose: some of the K-general teachers [choose materials that] do not really fit the [appropriate] children range of voices, and which tend to create vocal difficulties. He notes the longevity of such a workable match: â€Å"On returning to the school many years later for my first teaching post, I discovered that the school’s policy toward music had continued, with the same range of events a nd activities in place. † In the previous issue, Young discussed the unprecedented commitment England has made to the arts—specifically music, a commitment Welch reiterates. Boyce Tillman recalls a time when the resources from the national government were in local hands, resulting in inequitable opportunity: At [age] seven I started piano lessons but because the place we lived in was then in Southampton and not in the County of Hampshire (to which we are very close and in which we had been Although our policymaking systems move slowly, and are not always moving in the direction we would like, there is hope in the growing numbers of people who care about music education. Oliviera writes: â€Å"at least we can feel the difference between my generation and today’s generation. Perhaps our aim is to prepare children who grow up to be like von Gestel, with the same rich resources at hand for creating meaningful experiences: Music (and especially making and teaching music) was and is a part of my everyday life, and really I can’t imagine a life without singing together and making music. It makes my life worth living. References Bjorkvold, J. R. 1 992. The muse within: Creativity and communication, song and play from childhood through maturity. Trans. W. H. Halverson, New York: HarperCollins. Campbell, P. S. 2007. Musical meaning in children’s cultures. In International handbook of research in arts education, ed. L. Bresler, 881–94. Dorderecht, The Netherlands: Springer. Dissanayake, E. 2000. Art and intimacy. Seattle: University of Washington Press. Littleton, D. 1998. Music learning and child’s play. General Music Today 12 (1): 8–15. Marsh, K. 1995. Children’s singing games: Composition in the playground? Research Studies in Music Education 4:2–11. Moorhead, G. E. , and D. Pond. 1941. Music of young children. 1 Chant. Santa Barbara, CA: Pillsbury Foundation for the Advancement of Music Education. Papousek, H. 1996. Musicality in infancy research: Biological and cultural origins of early musicality. In Musical beginnings: Origins and development of musical competence, ed. I. Deliege and J. Sloboda, 37–55. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press. Smith, D. C. 1991. Foundations of modern Chinese education. In The Confucian continuum, ed. D. C. Smith, 1–64. New York: Praeger. Trevarthen, C. 1999. Musicality and the intrinsic motive pulse: Evidence from psychobiology and human communication. Musicae Scientiae (Special Issue: Rhythm, Musical Narrative, and Origins of Human Communication), 155–211. Lori A. Custodero is an associate professor and program coordinator of the Music Downloaded by [Macquarie University] at 14:58 28 March 2013 and Music Education program at Teachers College, Columbia University, where she has established an early childhood music concentration that integrates pedagogy and research through both theory and practice. She served on the International Society for Music Education’s Commission for Early Childhood for six years and is involved in research and teaching projects in a variety of countries. Lily Chen-Hafteck is an associate professor of music education and assistant chair of the Music Department at Kean University, New Jersey. Originally from Hong Kong, she has held teaching and research positions at the University of Pretoria in South Africa, the University of Surrey Roehampton in England, and Hong Kong Baptist University. She serves on the editorial board of the International Journal of Music Education, Asia-Pacific Journal for Arts Education and Music Education Research International. She is the chair of the International Society for Music Education Young Professionals Focus Group. Vol. 109, No. 3, January/February 2008 7 Downloaded by [Macquarie University] at 14:58 28 March 2013 ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? How to cite Harmonizing Research, Practice, Papers

Truth and Reconciliation Commission free essay sample

In Fiona Ross’s Truth and Reconciliation we get to examine the results of the new government’s attempts at making reconciliations with some of the wrongs that the people of South Africa had endured during apartheid by means of â€Å"truth commissions† vis-a-vis people’s testimonies to the level of personal victimization they had endured. However, not all people chose to portray their involvement (however they want to define it) in apartheid as pure victimization. If one chose to recognize their involvement in apartheid in a more assertive manner, where they were not passively suffering, they were denied the rights to reparations. I find it unjust that only those who played the part required of them for the judicial system were rewarded, but it is also something that makes good sense. How else would the state of Zwelethemba distinguish between those affected by apartheid and those who managed to escape personal detriment? The fact is that if you are seeking to rebuild your future, you must reconstruct your past, at least for a short period of time. We will write a custom essay sample on Truth and Reconciliation Commission or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page And that notion is something that the South African Commission tries to validate through supporting personal testimonies. Ross says that the Commission believed that â€Å"speaking of suffering was in some measure cathartic and would give rise to interpersonal and national reconciliation† (pg239). Many women, however, did not want to testify about any sexual violence they may have endured. The case is there, as it is here, that sometimes women are stigmatized as to blame for the sexual abuse they have endured and because of social stigmas attached to sexual violence, the insistence for women to testify should be seen as intrusive and humiliating. Some hurts do not heal and avoidance may be a coping mechanism through which individuals manage past hurts† (pg 241). The Commission probably thought that testimonies would be the most effective method of giving personal and monetary acknowledgment to these individuals, and it’s impossible to say if it isn’t, but bringing up past memories can be more damaging to individuals than simply letting them dissolve.

Mmasks free essay sample

Mmasks of snot and dust, their faces looked tired and resigned to the dirty lot of children. All the neighbors gathered around our open-air bathroom. Wives peered out from the upper floor of their houses into our yard. Father had arrived booming with his cousins, my uncles. They were big, strong men, my uncles. They turned the house inside-out looking for me. Curled up in the deepest corner of my dead mother’s cabinet, father found me. He dragged me down the stairs by the hair into the waiting arms of my uncles. Because of modesty, I merely screamed and cried. Their hands, swollen and black with hair, bore me up in the air, and touched me. Into the cold of the drum I slipped, the tingling too much to bear at times my knees felt like they had turned into water. Waves swirled up and down around me, my head bobbing up and down. We will write a custom essay sample on Mmasks or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page Father kept booming, Girl or Boy. I thought about it and squealed, Girl. Water curled under my nose. When I rose the same two words from father. The same girl kept sinking deeper, breathing deeper in the churning void. In the end I had to say what they all wanted me to say. I had to bring this diversion to its happy end, if only for the pot of rice left burning in the kitchen. I had to stop wearing my dead mother’s clothes. In the mirror I watched the holes on my ears grow smaller, until they looked as if they had never heard of rhinestones, nor felt their glassy weight. I should feel happy now that I’m redeemed. And I do. Father died within five years. I got my wife pregnant with the next. Our four children, all boys, are the joy of my manhood, my proof. Cousins who never shed their masks lay them for all their snot and grime. Another child is on the way. I have stopped caring what it will be. Water is still a problem and the drum is still there, deep and rusty. The bathroom has been roofed over with plastic. Scrubbed and clean, my wife knows I like things. She follows, though sometimes a pighead she is. It does not hurt to show her who is the man. A woman needs some talking sense in to. If not, I hit her in the mouth to learn her. Every time, swill drips from her shredded lips. I drink with my uncles who all agree. They should because tonight I own their souls nd the bottles they nuzzle like their prides. While they boom and boom flies whirr over their heads that grew them. Though nobody remembers, I sometimes think of the girl who drowned somewhere in a dream many dreams ago. I see her at night with bubbles springing like flowers from her nose. She is dying and before she sinks I try to touch her open face. But the water learns to heal itself and closes around her like a wound. I should feel sorry but I drown myself in gin before I can. Better off dead, I say to myself and my family that loves me for my bitter breath. We die to rise to a better life.

Art Project 4 Example

Art Project 4 Example Art Project 4 – Term Paper Example Walt Disney Walter Elias Disney is known to be the remarkable artist of the 20th century whohas gifted the world with the ever-glowing shine of cartoons and animated movies. He had the vision to see an object on the land and ability to sketch it down on a sheet. He engaged his growing years in getting perfect over fine arts and got himself into the making of short animated stories for local businesses company, Laugh-O-Grams in Kansas City. His career started from ‘The Alice Comedies’ (Brad, pp. 56-60), which was not completed because the company got bankrupt, and thus, he went to Hollywood for the fulfillment of his dreams. There he completed his series and found the most amazing character, ‘Mickey Mouse’ that became the world’s first synchronized sound cartoon released in New York on November 18, 1928 (Brad, pp. 23-25).In 1937, he released the ‘Old Mill.’ Then in the year 1937, came the ‘Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs’ that brought immense revenue and fame for Disney. The animated cartoons were developed in his Walt Disney Studios and in the next five years, he made Pinocchio, Fantasia, Dumbo, and Bambi. His production house made a number of other musical animated hits such as ‘The three Callaberos’ and many more. Furthermore, he brought in the Technicolor programming and was the first one in the full color television programming in 1954. In 1961, he started an institute â€Å"California Institute of The Arts† (Thomas, pp. 45-49) for the development of the artistic nature in the students. His most acclaimed contribution has been the making of Disney World, the theme park, amusement park, with motels and resorts formed during the period of 1965-1971, which was completed after his demise in 1966 (Thomas, pp. 39-42). The works of Walt Disney are an exception. Creating an idea into a real visual feature is astounding. The color, the energy, the spirit, and the theme he put up with his work have not been conceived by anyone until now. Mickey mouse is known to every age group and is still watched with excitement. The long nose of Pinocchio is still taught as a lesson to children for if they say a lie, their nose will be like Pinocchio. Walt Disney works bought in the charisma and joy to the theatres, as well as to homes. With the creation of Disney land, the people around the world come there and consider them as a part of the Walt’s life and creations. His innovative ideas have made the world come closer, spreading happiness, and making the world a better and a loving place to live.Brad A. Walt Disney biography. Thomson Learning, 2000. Thomas, Bob. Walt Disney: an American Original. Springer, 1999.

Burumas Murder in Amsterdam and Duboiss Soccer Empire Essay

Burumas Murder in Amsterdam and Duboiss Soccer Empire - Essay Example She feels that the West should not be cowards in proclaiming their system’s superiority. However, she compels the Muslims to adopt the Western values risk as a counterattack. The author shows that the most radical Muslims are not those who immigrate to Europe but those in the second generation and born in Europe. The most radical Muslims grow up rootless, disaffected and most of them are jobless. In the Book â€Å"Soccer Empire† by Dubois, the author explores the history of French football and illuminates the tangled and great history of the relationship between France and its colonies in Africa such as Algeria, Caribbean, and West Africa. Dubois illustrates the role of sport in the evolution of anti-racism and anti-colonial movements. Dubois explores the relationship between sports clubs and political parties and the manner in which they influence racial equality and act as a channel for collective desires and emotions. The author uses two heroes in the modern French games namely Zidane and Lilian Thuram. Thuram is a hero: a diplomat and a football intellectual. He was born in Guadeloupe and committed to both his birthplace and the values of the French Republic. Thuram campaigns against racism because for him dignity is paramount despite all the provocation. According to Thuram, he does not sing the La Marseilaise when presenting France because he feels that it is mo re significant to feel loyalty instead of showing it. Zidane is Dubois’ antihero character in his book. The players from different origins together with Zidane form a great team and win the World Cup in the year. Dubois illustrates that, the football team has come against racism and overcome it fully because the team is a multicultural composition of people from different origins. The team members forget their differences, work hard together to achieve one common goal. The French society in the

Dental insurance Article Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Dental insurance - Article Example The core issue discussed relies on the information gathered with reference to the level in which the respondents accept or reject the of the thirty Current dental terminology codes (CDT) (Stafford et.al, 2010). Scholarly research insisted that among all the adults, the privately insured were more likely to have treated carries. This is contrary with reference to the case of the uninsured. Statistically, scholarly information indicates that 68.5% of private insurance and 56.9% had dental insurance. According to the study, above 80 % dental exams acceptance rate was recorded, inclusive of the insured and uninsured. First, the exams taken orally were highly rejected. The results of the study depict that most of the insured persons indicated a high rate of acceptance toward oral prophylaxis procedure (Stafford et.al, 2010). On the other side, the uninsured show less acceptance rate towards treatments. Statistically, the insured show 90% acceptance, against the 74.6 acceptance rate. Overall statistics gathered from the study indicate that 72% of all the patients accepted the treatments. Specifically, 75% of the insured persons accepted treatment. Alternatively, 68% of the uninsured rejected it (Stafford et.al, 2010). However, the results dictate that there is an affirmative correlation between the independent and dependent variable. Ideally, the independent variable is the status of insurance, and the dependent variable is the dental treatment. Stafford,  W.  L., Edenfield,  S.  M., Coulton,  K.  M., & Beiter,  T. (2010). Research Research.  Insurance as a Predictor of Dental Treatment: A Pilot Study in the Savannah, Chatham County Area,  84(1),

Human intellectual curiosity Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 6500 words

Human intellectual curiosity - Essay Example Geography is also the study of the planetary variation of both natural and human phenomena on Earth. Study of Geography is as old as human history. It was systematically studied by the ancient Greeks, who also developed a philosophy of Geography. The most prominent of them were Thales, Eratosthenes, Aristotle, Strabo, and Ptolemy. The Romans also made contributions to Geography by doing the mapping of previously unknown lands. The Arabs also bequeathed in the progress of Geography during the Middle Ages. Human beings have always been involved in pondering over Nature. The real initial recorded achievements were those of the Greeks. Thales was the first philosopher whose mythology was used to explain the nature of the physical world. He introduced Geometry and was a prominent astronomer. He was also the first man who started the real process of pondering and predicting. Raphael Sanzio was the great painter and philosopher whose name is used for the famous "Raphael's The School of Athens". During those days of the 16th century, the meaning of the great old ages was being rediscovered and absorbed in Europe. His painting shows the constellation of great Greek philosophers in a beautiful way. The two great scholars, Plato and Aristotle, are present at the centre of his painting. Plato and Aristotle were two of the great Greek philosophers. ... , with Plato holding his hand upright as if to indicate, "Look to the perfection of the heavens for Truth," while Aristotle holds his arm straight out, implying "Look around you as if you would know the Truth." Plato was also a good astronomer. He was among the first few great scientists who studied the sky with his limited resources and revealed many facts that are still relevant with some minor amendments. Meterorologica, 340 B.C. Aristotle's Meteorologica is considered to be the oldest study on meteorological subjects. The bulk of information proved incorrect according to modern research, but it was considered to be authority in those days up to recent years. The Greek philosophers developed their theories just by observation and mere intellectual pondering, but they never did any experiments to prove them. Yet their theories -while not quite correct- helped a great deal in the foundation of the modern scientific knowledge. For example, some theories and theorems by the great philosopher Pythagoras are still relevant. Plato was deeply interested in Pythagoreanism, even though he was reserved about him. He only mentioned him once by name in all his writings, and all we are told then is that he won the affections of his followers in an unusual degree by teaching them a "way of life," which was called Pythagorean. Aristotle also wrote a special treatise on the Pythagoreans, which has not come down to us, but som e of its quotations are found in later writers. These are of great value as they deal with the religious side of Pythagoreanism. Antikythera Mechanism. The level reached by the Greeks in Astronomy and Engineering is impressively shown by the Antikythera mechanism. In 1901, divers working off the isle of Antikythera found the remains of a 2,000-years-old

An Analysis Of The Critical Period

An Analysis Of The Critical Period The critical period hypothesis cites a commonly observable phenomenon, the fact that children find language learning much easier than adults, and learn language remarkably quickly, to claim that language learning is more difficult, or impossible after puberty. The concept of critical periods was initially introduced in the study of animal behavior, where it was noticed that certain behavioral responses only emerged when stimulus was given within a particular time frame. This concept has been applied to many species, including humans, with regard to the development of specific emotional responses such as stress.  [1]  In 1967 Lenneberg proposed that this concept also applied to human linguistic development, seeing language as a response and exposure to language as the stimulus.  [2]  There are two versions of this hypothesis: the strong version, which claims that no language acquisition is possible after puberty, and the weak version, which maintains that language learning wil l be much more difficult. A distinction is often made between language acquisition, the way in which children unconsciously learn their native tongue, and language learning which implies formal instruction, and Lenneberg maintains this distinction himself. Age is not the only variable when comparing groups of learners. We cannot simply compare children and adults, but must differentiate between children acquiring their first language, children learning additional language(s) naturalistically, child and adult classroom learners, both in the country where the language is spoken and outside of it, and immigrants immersed in a foreign language and culture, learning language through induction. With these groups, different social and psychological factors, as well as age, affect their language proficiency, and these must be explored alongside the role that age may play. Some psychologists and psycho-linguists, such as Steven Pinker, claim that language learning stops at puberty because before that an innate language learning mechanism is present in the brain, enabling children to flawlessly acquire any language, given enough input.  [3]  Once puberty is reached, this language acquisition mechanism is shut down, and language acquisition becomes impossible. Chomsky claims that another variety of innate device, a Universal Grammar capability, allows the child to extract grammatical rules from the input that he receives, and to use them to generate an infinite number of further grammatical sentences.  [4]  In claiming that these devices shut down at puberty, these theories make no allowances, for example, for the fact that vocabulary is added to the corpus of language knowledge throughout life, and that adults can be successful in learning foreign languages. If a child acquires substandard forms, this does not mean that as an adult, he or she wi ll not be able to modify these forms. It is also possible to acquire a first language after puberty, as some cases, which will be discussed later, have shown Both Pinker and Chomsky allude to the ease of language acquisition as proof of an innate device behind it. We do not ascribe innate knowledge to other fields that children excel in, simply because they find them easy. For example, any child who is physically able to can learn to ride a bicycle, yet it is doubtful that a theorist would propose that evolution has provided an innate bicycle-riding apparatus. One element of the skill, balance, is innate, and is controlled by a specific part of the inner ear, the semicircular canals.  [5]  Once the child has achieved good enough control over its muscles, it can build on the innate function of balance to learn to ride a bicycle. To learn language, a child must process the data to which it is exposed, deduce rules from regularities occurring in this data, and apply these. In addition, it must have control over the muscles that govern articulation. There is no need to suppose that a specialized linguistic device to extract these rules exists, however. The entire left hemisphere of the brain is constantly constructing theories regarding the world around it, based on sensory evidence.  [6]  Language heard by the child is a part of this sensory data, existing in its aural form and in a visual or aural referent, which must be simultaneously processed. Brain function experiments have shown that the left hemisphere of the brain is indeed more active when grammar is being handled.  [7]  Like bicycle riding, language is an ability based entirely on an innate function, but is not entirely innate in itself. Without exposure, language doesnt appear; therefore it is not innate. Rather than supposing that vague, un located language acquisition or universal grammar mechanisms exist in the brain, the ability to extract theories from data could be seen as a wider function of the brain itself, rather than being language specific. If these specialized mechanisms cannot be proven to exist, then the decline in language learning ability cannot be accounted for by the shutting down of these mechanisms. Such theories also seem to suggest an erroneous concept of the brain itself. Were the brain designed it would doubtless include specific linguistic structures, and some kind of mechanism for language acquisition. But it has evolved to contain not innate knowledge or skills, but the potential for knowledge and skills to develop. The fact that the same areas of the brain handle language in approximately 90% of the population  [8]  is no reason to regard these areas as empty containers waiting to be filled with language, or with their own mechanism to enable this to happen. In any case, the brain is so richly provided with interconnections that it is impossible to describe any boundaries within it. Language is organized in the same way in most humans, but the organization is not rigid. If that part of the brain is injured in youth, language can be relocated to a different place without detrimental effect, suggesting that, although a preference may exist, no sector of the brain is mo re or less suitable than any other for language processing, and negating the possibility that one particular area of the brain is equipped with a language acquisition device.  [9]   Brain injuries also shed light on another important issue. If a young child suffers a head injury to the region of the brain that controls language, it suffers minor temporary language handicap, followed by normal development. The language centers develop again elsewhere without detriment. An older child will also be able to recover language ability, but other abilities, such as spatial skills, will be compromised. An adult suffering the same injury would be terribly and irrevocably handicapped by aphasia.  [10]  As well as suggesting that language can exist normally in other parts of the brain, it suggests that there is a difference between child and adult brains. Also, children become gradually more like adults, reflecting a gradual change in the brain as maturity is approached. In his original critical period hypothesis, Lenneberg cited this change undergone in the brain as the main physiological basis for the critical period.  [11]  Children were constrained in their language ability until the brain was mature enough, but once the brain achieves maturity, as occurs at puberty, language acquisition is again impossible. This is because lateralization is complete, with all brain functions being localized to a particular area, and cerebral plasticity not longer possible. This is supported by the experience of brain injured people. In younger children, brain organization is incomplete, and so if one part of the brain is injured, it is straightforward for the language centre to be re-established. Older children can also re-establish their language ability, but at the expense of other skills, suggesting that language is supplanting these skills in a particular area of the brain. Adults inability to do this suggests that functions previously flexible have now become immovable, supporting the idea of brain lateralization, and its effect on language. However, this does not provide proof that language learning is impossible after puberty. Adults learning a second language are not attempting to establish another centre of language function. The same areas of the brain are used to process all languages, even sign language. They are adding to their linguistic knowledge, acquiring new grammatical rules and vocabulary, but the same part of the brain will handle such knowledge. We acquire much of the vocabulary of our native language during our teens and beyond, as well as learning more complicated grammatical structures, so there is no reason to suppose that we cannot do the same with a foreign language. We can discount these claims, and still be left with the observation that children learn languages much quicker than adults do. If a family immigrates to a new country, the children will pick up the new language quickly, leaving their parent far behind, and probably acting as their interpreters. Children undoubtedly have advantages, yet these are not inextricably linked to their age. When a child is learning language, circumstances are uniquely supportive, and these circumstances are not usually replicated in later life. Physiologically, children have advantages. Hearing declines with age, and so the child is better able to identify different phonemes, and because children have better control of the articulatory muscles, they are better able to reproduce what they have heard.  [12]  Young children also have an amazing ability to learn by rote, and so can retain more data for analysis. Psychologically, they are unaffected by inhibitions or previous experiences. Young children acquiring a second language may not even have a conception of language itself, since it is many years before children can discuss language reflexively. They are usually free from prejudice against the new language, or any cultural concepts that may accompany it. In terms of hours spent on language acquisition, it is no small task. Children are attuned to language from birth, and are aware of sound in the womb.  [13]  Yet it is many months before they begin to vocalize, and years before they consistently produce grammatical sentences. From a vast amount of input, numbering many hours every single day, the child still takes much time, and much experimentation, before it is consistently accurate in its application of grammatical rules. It would take years of weekly language lessons for an adult to have experienced similar exposure, and undoubtedly the adult would then have acquired a good deal of the language, and would perhaps be approaching native-speaker fluency. The input is therefore superior on terms of quantity, but also in terms of quality. Caretaker language is a common phenomenon, including foreigner talk as well as Parentheses. This is due to the obvious fact that in communication, we are aiming to be understood, and will naturally produce what we judge that our listener will understand. Parentheses and Foreigner talk share many common features, but Parentheses is superior for language learning for many reasons. Firstly, the parent or other has a much better idea of what the child can understand and can modify their output accordingly. Secondly, Foreigner talk is often ungrammatical, with, for example, infinitives being overused to aid comprehension. Parentheses is mostly grammatical, unlike adult to adult speech,  [14]  and therefore provides the child with a large amount of perfect data from which to extract rules, whereas the foreigner is more likely to extract erroneous rules from the false data presented. And of course a pare nt has a much greater interest in the language skills of their children than a colleague or acquaintance will have in the language learning of their foreign friends. The child is also favored by the relative unimportance of comprehension. If a baby does not understand what an adult with whom it is playing says, it doesnt matter. If needs be, the adult can physically move the child or otherwise compel it to do something. If the baby is at the top of the stairs, and doesnt heed instructions to move, the adult will simply pick it up. However, an immigrant will have to perform some tasks, such as finding work, shopping, or applying for a driving license, and not understanding warning signs such as Beware of the Dog or Electrified Fence. The need to understand and been understood is much greater, and accompanying stress and frustration may hinder the learner. In addition, the world is favorably disposed towards children, whose mistakes they find endearing, but often hostile towards foreigners with a similar language capability. For children, the vast majority of social interaction is not based on conversation but centered on a particular activity, such as a ball game, or painting. Therefore, a child may gain acceptance into a group of his or her peers without a common language, and through participation is able to learn the language. For adults the reverse is true. Little interaction will take place if adults without a common language meet, reflecting the central role that conversation plays in most adult interactions. Again, this is a sociological factor. On a German exchange, for example, a student would participate in events like family meals, at which they would understand little of the conversation. They would be able to acquire several items of vocabulary, and phrases such as Guten Appetit. However, it is unlikely that an adult would be able to have the benefit of such an opportunity. In the first place, it is unlikely that he or she would have been able to make such a friendship as to prompt an invit ation. Were this possible, conversational conventions would not allow for a silent participant, making the hosts feel as if they were in some way excluding their guest, and the guest as if he was not providing his or her share of the evenings conversation. Used to being able to participate, the guest would no doubt feel frustrated at being unable to express opinions already thought through in the second language. In this way, inhibitions bar the older learner from excellent language learning opportunities. Our life experience shows us that adults can indeed be successful in learning a new language, whether it is stock phrases from a phrase book, or the entire language. If enough time can be devoted to the language, fluency is achievable at any age. The main area where children are superior to adults is pronunciation. A child can easily sound like a native speaker, yet few adults manage to acquire a perfect accent, however hard they study. This may be because children have superior hearing and better control over their articulatory organs. Even within the native language, accents appear to become fixed after puberty. A Scottish child who moves to England will quickly exchange his accent for the one he hears at school, whereas a Scottish adult may spend the vast majority of his life in England, and yet retain his accent. But adults can alter their accent, through elocution classes, and an actor may possess a vast repertoire of regional accents. In both cases, acquiring a new accent is ad vantageous; therefore there is a genuine motivation to do it. Research substantiates this: Neufeld developed a successful pronunciation technique that moves gradually from listening to speaking. After eighteen hours of instruction, nine out of twenty students convinced listeners that they were native speakers of Japanese, and 8 out of twenty that they were Chinese.  [15]  Where there is no need to alter ones accent it is unlikely that the effort will be made. A native speaker of English, with a regional accent, will have no problem with being understood in any part of the country, and therefore has no motivation to adapt it. While children are more likely to alter their accent, and have physical advantages enabling them to do so, adults do not lack this ability. Some kind of choice, probably subconscious is made. Children wish to be like their peers, and adults wish to retain their developed sense of personal identity. The importance of accent is perhaps overrated. Fluency is the ability to communicate as well in a second language as in the native tongue, to be able to generate and to understand an infinite number of sentences, not to pass as a native speaker. A foreign accent doesnt often hamper comprehension if the sentence is grammatically correct; therefore accent is not a vital part of language. It is merely a social factor. The fact that adults do not acquire native-like accents is not proof of a critical period for language acquisition. Although children seem to have the upper hand in naturalistically acquiring language, for these various reasons, research shows that classroom learning actually favors the older learner. When language is not taught in a formal context, children excel. Perhaps it seems effortless because the young child is not told that it should be laborious. But a child introduced to language in the classroom, who has experienced school as boring and demanding, and is told that much learning of grammar will be required, and is constantly informed of his mistakes, will see language learning as an effort. Krashen recognizes these factors in his Affective Filter hypothesis,  [16]  basically an exploration of the different factors that may influence motivation, obviously an important factor influencing learning of any kind. Studies concentrating on a variety of first and second languages have shown that when older and younger students learning by the same method are compared, older students make better progress. When immigrants to Holland were compared, adults made faster progress than children did in learning Dutch  [17]  ; Swedish pupils were shown to make better progress in their English lessons the older they were  [18]  . The Total Physical response method of language teaching is supposedly more suitable for children, yet in a Russian study adults achieved better results.  [19]  Even in a supposedly more naturalistic technique, the French immersion system as practiced in Canada, where children acquire French through being taught a range of school subjects only in that language, those who entered the immersion program at a later stage were judged more proficient than those who participated from the start.  [20]  The situation is of crucial importance here. Effectiveness in a classroo m situation increases with age in all other subjects, and in adulthood, when education is by choice not compulsion, learners are even more motivated. Childrens physiological advantages do not produce greater success when they are compared with adults in an identical situation. This suggests that it is the situation in which the language learning is taking place that is of vital importance. Children mostly learn naturalistically, in a supportive environment, whereas adults learning through immersion often find society hostile. The constraints of a classroom mean that language learning is not as effective as naturalistic learning. An important part of the debate over the critical period has focussed on the Wild Children the few children who have been raised entirely without language and have been later discovered. These children cannot provide proof of anything in scientific terms. They are unfortunate human beings rather than a scientific experiment, with their lives before discovery shrouded in mystery. We could not use the fact that these children do not always acquire language to prove that no child would be able to under the same circumstances, since we cannot discount factors such as mental retardation, or the effects of their often brutal earlier lives. However, their achievements do challenge some theories advanced. History has provided us with two known examples of children who did not begin to learn their native language until past puberty. Two cases, Caspar Hauser and Victor, the wild boy of Aveyron, are distant in time and complicated by claims of hoaxing in the first instance and mental retardation in the second, which obviously cannot be proved or disproved. For what it is worth, both cases acquired language, Caspar (aged 16) perfectly, and Victor (aged around 12) imperfectly, but he is said to have attained a useful communicative ability.  [21]   More recently, other cases of children being raised without language have occurred, and have been subject to more stringent scientific exploration, and can therefore be more useful in a discussion of the critical period. Genie is perhaps the most notable example, being the eldest at the time of discovery, at thirteen years old, and subject to complete isolation before that time.  [22]  The case of Isabelle, aged six, is also notable for her perfect acquisition of language within two years, to the normal childs five. Genie was discovered in November 1970, having been isolated in the same room between the age of twenty months and 13 and a half years. Her only human contact was with her father and brother, who used only growling noises and violence to communicate with her. Genie was handicapped not only in her language development, but also in all forms of socialization. She had no reaction to temperature, no concept of ownership or of personal space, and could not even chew her food. At first, she was disinclined to vocalize at all, having been beaten by her father for making any noise whatsoever, and even in her tantrums she tended to use items of furniture to make sound, remaining eerily silent herself. Children begin to use words to describe a world they have already become familiar with, but Genie was faced with the task of acquiring words to describe an environment she could barely even understand. Under these circumstances it is not remarkable that she did not develop complete language compe tency over the first five years of her rehabilitation. However, her achievement in these years was not inconsiderable, as one researcher, Susan Curtiss points out: Genies language is far from normal. More important, however, over and above the specific similarities and differences that exist between Genies language and the language of normal children, we must keep in mind that Genies speech is rule-governed behavior, and that from a finite set of arbitrary linguistic elements she can and does create novel utterances that theoretically know no upper bound. These are aspects of human language that set it apart form all other animal communication systems. Therefore, abnormalities notwithstanding, in the most fundamental and critical respects, Genie has language.  [23]   Here we have an example of an individual past puberty who has made considerable progress in mastering her first language, has succeeded in the most fundamental and critical respects even if not completely. At the very least, Genie shows that the term critical period is misleading, since language exposure before puberty is not critical, and no fixed amount of time or developmental stage can be cited.  [24]   Isabelle, like Genie, was completely isolated from the speaking world, being imprisoned with her deaf-mute mother. Unlike Genie, she was not treated cruelly, and interacted with her mother using gestures of their own devising. On being discovered aged six, in 1938, she was thought to be uneducable, but within a week had begun to use words. She was noted to pass through the normal developmental stages of language acquisition, but at a vastly accelerated rate, catching up with her age group two years later.  [25]  The fact that Genie was more than twice Isabelles age is not necessarily the decisive factor here. Isabelle was not traumatized by her upbringing, and was not an unsocialised creature, like Genie. She understood the concept of communication, and had developed a language of a sort, the gestures she used with her mother. Her task was not so great as Genies, and so her greater achievement is proof only that a six-year-old can acquire language, and not that a thirteen-year-ol d cannot. The Critical Period hypothesis suggests that age is the primary reason for childrens apparent superior language learning ability. This may be a factor, but is far from being the only reason. Language is more complex than a simple response to a simple stimulus, as Lennebergs hypothesis may suggest. Even if it were proved that childrens ability proceeds entirely from their more suitable circumstances, the impossibility of exactly replicating these circumstances for an adult would mean that the discovery would not be of much functional use. As an adult language student it would be most useful to note that it may be my inhibitions rather that my inabilities that hinder me most in my studies, and that regarding grammar as laborious may indeed make it so!

Relationships Between Vietnam Soldiers and Their Families :: Vietnam War Essays

The relationship between the soldiers of the Vietnam War was different from the relationships with people from home. The soldiers felt as if they could not tell the whole truth about the war through their eyes to their loved ones at home. The soldiers that they were with all the time understood the pain and confusion each other felt, yet no one talked about it. War changed how people had relationships with others. War could bring people closer or tear them apart. The relationships between the soldiers and their families grew or forced them to become distant. The soldier did not want to worry his parents at home and knew that they would not understand what he was going through. In the Documentary Dear America: Letters Home from Vietnam, directed by Bill Couturie, showed these relationships change. One soldier writes to his mother and tells her that for a second, he felt as if he was on vacation because it was so beautiful in Vietnam. One had to think that this man wrote this to his mother only for her to worry less. He did not want to tell her the whole truth on what was really going on inside of him. Would anyone from the outside world understand? "P.S. tell mom not to worry, there is nothing I can't handle." The soldiers could handle the physical horrors that were happening to them, but the mental status of many the soldiers were becoming breakable. How could you tell someone not to worry about you, when you do not even care what was going t o happen to yourself. The soldiers were all prepared to die, but waiting was what was driving them crazy. They did not want to tell their 17-year-old girlfriend at home this because she would never understand. How do you tell someone that you love that you are loosing your mind and do even know who the enemy is anymore? Downplaying the whole war situation to your loved one was the only way to keep yourself sane and not make them worry too much about you. All of the men were scared, yet did not know how to show it. They could not show it to their families in letters because that could do nothing but make your mother worry that you were not going to make it. "We all scared, one can see this emotion in each individual, some hide it with their mouth and others hide it with their actions.

Impact of Globalization on Legal Education in India Essay

We are living in the â€Å"Era of Globalization†. Globalization is not a synonym of Global business, but it is more than that. Globalization poses variety of complex trends in the economic, social and cultural fabrics of all societies. We live in an intensely interdependent world in which all immense differences of culture and historical experience are compressed together in instant communication. The international transactions in services are defined as the economic output of intangible commodities that may be produced, transferred and consumed at the same time Traditionally services are viewed as domestic activities due to direct contact between producer and consumer and government monopoly in infrastructure sector. The emerging digitization concept has altered this perception. The ascent of information and communication technology has given rise to e-commerce, e-banking, e-learning, e-medicine and e-governance. So, it is argued that government finds it increasingly difficult to cope up with technology-driven ctivities. Because of that Nowadays Education has turned out to be a commodity of international trade. It is no more a public good on domestic scale, but a private good on global scale. Globalization brings education to the front lines. In the prevailing discourse, education is expected to be the major tool for incorporation into the ‘knowledge society’ and the technological economy. In this paper author is going to see the impact of globalization on legal education in India. As we all know that ‘Law is the cement of society and an essential medium of change. Globalization and Legal Education in India We broadly understand globalization as an ongoing process which entails the free movement of capital, labour, goods and services across national borders. However, these parameters of economic globalization cannot be viewed in isolation from other aspects such as the free exchange of ideas and practices. From this perspective, the legal systems in various countries have a lot to learn from each other – both in terms of institutional design and the evolution of substantive lawswith increasing trade and investment across borders, there is an imperative need for all of us to understand the functioning of international institutions. At the same time, our national legal system must offer a balanced response to the rapidly changing socio-economic realities. We must also bear in mind that in this age of the internet and frequent international travel, judges, lawyers, academicians and even law students from different countries have a lot of opportunities to interact, collaborate and le arn from each other’s experiences. Access to foreign legal materials has become much easier on account of the development of information and communication technology. A few years ago, subscriptions to foreign law reports and law reviews were quite expensive and hence beyond the reach of most judges, practitioners and educational institutions. However, the growth of the internet and globalization has radically changed the picture. The decisions of most Constitutional Courts are uploaded on freely accessible websites Furthermore; electronic databases operated by prominent publishing houses have ensured that judges, practitioners and law students all over the world an readily browse through materials from several jurisdictions. Such easy access to international and comparative materials has also been the key factor behind the emergence of internationally competitive commercial law firms and Legal Process Outsourcing (LPO) operations in India. The present law has to deal with problems of diverse magnitudes and a student of law and an Advocate has to be trained in Professional skills to meet the challenges of globalization and universalisation of law. Legal education should also prepare lawyers to meet the new challenges of working in a globalized knowledge economy in which the nature and organization of law and legal practice are undergoing a paradigm shift. The Law Commission of India defines legal education as a science which imparts to students knowledge of certain principles and provisions of law to enable them to enter the legal profession. Legal Education is the process which equips the future lawyer, judge, administrator, counselor and legal scientists to know how legislative, executive, judicial organs of the government, are designed and how they operates. Legal Education is a technique, arena and platform for rational, orderly and non-violent settlement of disputes and handling of conflicts. Constitutional recognition to legal education and its progress in India The Constitution of India basically laid down the duty of imparting education on the states by putting the matter pertaining to education in List II of the Seventh Schedule. But it now forms part of List III, giving concurrent legislative powers to the Union and the States. Legal profession along with the medical and other professions also falls under List III (Entry 26). However, the Union is empowered to co-ordinate and determines standards in institutions for higher education or research and scientific and technical institutions besides having exclusive power, inter alia, pertaining to educational institutions of national importance, professional, vocational or technical training and promotion of special studies or research empowered by the Constitution to legislate in respect of legal profession, Parliament enacted the Advocates Act, 1961, which brought uniformity in the system of legal practitioners in the form of Advocates and provided for setting up of he Bar Council of India and State Bar Councils in the States. Changed Scenario of Legal Education due to globalization About fifty years ago the concept was that the law schools are meant to produce graduates who would mostly come to the bar, while a few may go into law teaching. But during this period the entire concept of legal education has changed. Today, legal education has to meet not only the requirements of the bar and the new needs of trade, commerce and industry but also the requirements of globalization. New subjects with international dimensions have come into legal education. In the changed scenario, the additional roles envisaged are that of policy planner, business advisor, negotiator among interest groups, expert in articulation and communication of ideas, mediator, lobbyist, law reformer, etc. These roles demand specialized knowledge and skills not ordinarily available in the existing legal education. The National Knowledge Commission (NKC) was, however, established by the Prime Minister of India in 2005 to recommend and undertake reforms in order to make India knowledge based economy and society. The National Knowledge Commission, while deliberating on issues related to knowledge concepts recognizes legal education as an important constituent of professional education. The working Group on legal education, inter alias, identified the problems and challenges relating to curriculum and recommended changes and reforms relating to curriculum . The report recommends the development of contemporary curriculum, which is integrated with other disciplines and also ensures regular feedback from stakeholders . The curricula and syllabi must be based in a multi-disciplinary body of social science and scientific knowledge . Curriculum development should include expanding the domain of optional courses, providing deeper understanding of professional ethics, modernizing clinic courses, mainstreaming legal aid programs and developing innovative pedagogic methods . With the advent of globalization, it has become increasingly important to include international and comparative law perspectives. According to C. Rajkumar, in the era of globalization, we should pay attention in four important factors to improve the standard of legal education. These are: Global curriculum, Global faculty, Global degrees and Global interactions. We have to think globally but act locally. Law is one of the most dynamic subjects of the world. Dynamism is the life blood of law . A law which is static cannot survive for long and will be rejected by people for whom the law will be implemented. So, to keep pace with the changing situation of the world we have also to change, by addition, subtraction, or cancellation, of the existing curriculum of the legal education in India. Otherwise, in future, it will lose its importance and will turn into a relic of the past.

How to Use Comments in Java Code

How to Use Comments in Java Code Java comments are notes in a Java code file that are ignored by the compiler and runtime engine. They are used to annotate the code in order to clarify its design and purpose. You can add an unlimited number of comments to a Java file, but there are some best practices to follow when using comments. Generally, code comments are implementation comments that explain the source code, such as descriptions of classes, interfaces, methods, and fields. These are usually a couple of lines written above or beside Java code to clarify what it does. Another type of Java comment is a Javadoc comment. Javadoc comments differ slightly in syntax from implementation comments and are used by the program javadoc.exe to generate Java HTML documentation. Why Use Java Comments? Its good practice to get into the habit of putting Java comments into your source code to enhance its readability and clarity for yourself and other programmers. It isnt always instantly clear what a section  of Java code is performing. A few explanatory lines can drastically reduce the amount of time it takes to understand the code. Do They Affect How the Program Runs? Implementation comments in Java code are only there for humans to read. Java compilers dont care about them and when compiling the program, they just skip over them. The size and efficiency of your compiled program will not be affected by the number of comments in your source code. Implementation Comments Implementation comments come in two different formats: Line Comments: For a one line comment, type // and follow the two forward slashes with your comment. For example: // this is a single line comment int guessNumber (int) (Math.random() * 10); When the compiler comes across the two forward slashes, it knows that everything to the right of them is to be considered as a comment. This is useful when debugging a piece of code. Just add a comment from a line of code you are debugging, and the compiler wont see it: // this is a single line comment // int guessNumber (int) (Math.random() * 10); You can also use the two forward slashes to make an end of line comment: // this is a single line comment int guessNumber (int) (Math.random() * 10); // An end of line comment Block Comments: To start a block comment, type /*. Everything between the forward slash and asterisk, even if its on a different line, is treated as a  comment until the characters */ end the comment. For example: /* this is a block comment */ /* so is this */ Javadoc Comments Use special Javadoc comments to document your Java API. Javadoc is a tool included with the JDK that generates HTML documentation from comments in source code. A Javadoc comment in  .java  source files is enclosed in start and end syntax like so:  /**  and  */. Each comment within these is prefaced with a  *.   Place these comments directly above the method, class, constructor or any other Java element that you want to document. For example: // myClass.java/** * Make this a summary sentence describing your class.* Heres another line. */public class ​myClass{...} Javadoc incorporates various tags that control how the documentation is generated. For example, the  param  tag defines parameters to a method: /** main method * param args String[] */​ public static void main(String[] args) ​{ ​ System.out.println(Hello World!);​ } Many other tags are available in Javadoc, and it also supports HTML tags to help control the output. See your Java documentation for more detail. Tips for Using Comments Dont over comment. Every line of your program does not need to be explained. If your program flows logically and nothing unexpected occurs, dont feel the need to add a comment.Indent your comments. If the line of code you are commenting is indented, make sure your comment matches the indentation.Keep comments relevant. Some programmers are excellent at modifying code, but for some reason forget to update the comments. If a comment no longer applies, then either modify or remove it.Dont nest block comments. The following will result in a compiler error: /* this is /* This block comment finishes the first comment */ a block comment */

Adventure sports in India Essays

Adventure sports in India Essays Adventure sports in India Essay Adventure sports in India Essay Essay Topic: The Beast in the Jungle Adventure athleticss has fast caught up in the Indian surroundings. India offers huge chance for escapade lovers throughout its length and comprehensiveness. Enjoy the most alone escapade circuit in India, affecting trekking, jeep campaign, wildlife campaign, scubadiving, gliding, skiing, river rafting, stone mounting, mountain climbing, cycling, . Trekking is a really good activity that is vastly utile for both organic structure every bit good as head. It is a sort of religious experience rejuvenating the head fixing it for the day-to-day diifficulties of life. The Indian Himalaya are an ultimate finish for escapade lovers and has attracted Trekkers and lovers of nature Indian Himalayas are the beginning of important life giver rivers, like Ganges Beas, Satluj and their feeder. The Himalayan mountain scopes of India offer breathtaking, extremely disputing trekking routes.The list is eternal and options are mind boggling.Mountaineering in India was introduced by the Europeans in the eighteenth century. India offers an exciting mountain climbing experience to an escapade athletics lover. The Himalayas that stretch from north-west of India to far north-east offers a figure of high rise extremums that are considered ideal for mountaineering. Some of the fantastic topographic points for mountaineering in India are Leh Ladakh in Jam mu and Kashmir, Garhwal and Kumaon Himalayas in Uttarakhand, Kullu vale and Lahul Spiti in Himachal Pradesh, and Sikkim and some other parts of north-eastern part. ANGLING A ; FISHING are two singular escapade activities among the many others that are offered in the India. They are specially suited to the Indian bomber continent because of countless rivers that class through the expansive Gangetic Plains, and originate in the upper ranges of the brilliant Himalayas. The clear hotfooting Waterss of these assorted rivers and their feeders provide first-class fishing and angling vacations musca volitanss that are capturing in their chip and clean mountain beauty, every bit good as rich engendering land of a figure of different assortments of fish. The adventuresome scenes for angling and angling scope from the olympian Himalayan vale, snow-fed watercourses and high height lakes to the broad coastal stretches of the Arabian Sea and the Bay of Bengal. With a figure of wildlife sanctuaries and national Parkss, India offers an first-class chance for wildlife Tourss in India. India is place to many wildlife animate beings ; Asiatic king of beasts and tiger are two premier attractive forces of the Indian jungles. These two animate beings are possibly what pull most wildlife lovers to India. But that is non merely attractive force that India offers on its wildlife Tourss. The wildlife sanctuaries and national Parkss in India are pullulating with a broad assortment of vegetations and fauna.There are legion topographic points in India that are favourite among birdwatchers. White-water rafting is a high-level, high epinephrine H2O escapade that has few other escapade athleticss fiting its alone exhilaration and bang! The disruptive H2O, the unmanageable velocities, and the challenge of doing it over the churning rapids is a bloodcurdling high that has one raring to travel!

Who We Are As People Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Who We Are As People - Essay Example Who we are as people is a broad field of analysis of human life and all that is attributed towards it. The bible explains the origin of human life in the book of genesis. Charles Darwin is a scientist who wrote about the origin of man. In his manuscript, man evolved from a single cell. The replication of these cells led to the development of the first species of man. Religious societies have their own way of interpretation creation. However, the method is based on strong belief as it cannot be physically proved. The book of genesis contains the whole story of creation. The religious view of creation believes that human beings were created by a supreme being. Religion concept Religious and scientific aspects of life agree on one common understanding of human traits. They both believe that human beings are supreme creatures. According to the bible, God created heaven and earth and placed inside all the life components that exist. He created man on the last day and rested. Man is consid ered to be a special creature as he was given the breath of life by God Himself. God also appreciated his last creation as he made. This portrays that the last creature was special. Man was made in the image of his creator which was different case with the rest of God’s creation. According to science, man has the most complicated brain. Human beings are the most intelligent creatures. ‘In the text Metamorphoses’ God created heaven and made it a home the stars, He created the sea and made it a home for the fish and finally the earth which he made it to be a home for the wild animal. However, He was not impressed as none of the creatures had higher thought to rule over His creation. Finally, He made man whom he gave the ability to rule over His creation. They have the ability to reason thus differentiate between logic and illogical situations. Man was given the ability to raise his head high and face the sky while the wild animal and flying creatures all bow and fa ce down as a sign of respect for humankind. Technology concept Technology is another aspect that makes human beings special creatures. They have the ability to discover. Human beings are flexible to the inevitable change. They have the ability to manipulate change in order to match their needs. Human beings have a life span and are able to work with nature to ensure their life span is within the life expectancy radar. Self identity Self identity is one of the most important aspects in human life. This is ability to have a sense of belonging. Human beings ought to belong in a certain group or groups. Living things have the ability to correlate but human beings have a special ability to connect as well as correlate with each other (Chapeyama, 24). The idea of connection and correlation provide human beings with the advantage to advance in technology. Self identity is associated with behaviour and intension. Human beings have the power to chose and make decision. Self identity promotes self confident thus the ability to rule or make self decisions. Moral differences Human beings have moral differences which makes have admiration and develop interest in a variety of things. In the context ‘Metamorphoses’ the creation period is referred to as the golden age since there was no law, coercion, no fear nor punishment and no use of threatening or insulting words. This is an indicator that humankind have morally evolved and transformed to evil and unethical ways of life. The earth was smooth without a mark of plough. Currently, the situation has change and human beings are forced to work in order to obtain food. This notion is explained in the book of Genesis, ‘In the sweat of your face you shall eat bread till you return to the ground, for out of it you

Discuss the major factors behind the rise and decline of the Ancient Essay - 2

Discuss the major factors behind the rise and decline of the Ancient Egyptian Civilization - Essay Example Socialism played a pivotal role in the growth of the ancient Egyptian civilization. Karl Wittfogel, author of â€Å"Oriental Despotism† inferred that socialism laid the foundation for all primitive civilizations (Karenga 99). Socialism is an ideology, which advocates for public ownership in favor of privatization of a country’s economy. Ancient Egyptian civilization flourished under a centralized system of government charged with the responsibility of mobilizing the country’s resources. For example, the government oversaw the erection of permanent structures such as the pyramids of Giza and the Great Sphinx. In addition, Egypt’s strategic geographic location endorsed agriculture within the region, which translated into a reliable and stable source of food for its population. Ancient Egyptians capitalized on the flooded Nile River, which supplied water to sustain the irrigation of arable plains in the region. Under the government’s supervision, the h arvest was stored and controlled rations distributed to the population. Moreover, surplus harvest became a trade commodity boosting trade within the region. Growth was not limited to the economic sector only. The use of written words and symbols became a tool for the preservation of Egyptian culture whereby, scholars created permanent records of significant events. These served as reference points for future generations. Finally, the pharaohs (for example, Tuthmosis 1 and his grandson Tuthmosis III) secured the region’s borders by forming strategic alliances with their neighbors such as Assyria and Canaan (Hine et al 35). Historians remain divided regarding possible reasons, which contributed to sudden decline of the ancient Egyptian civilization. However, they all concur that the civilization collapsed during the end of the eighth dynasty after the long reign of Pepy II. It is estimated that Pepy II held the throne for ninety years. His sons were eager to rule in his stead

Howard Gardner and multiple intelligences Research Paper

Howard Gardner and multiple intelligences - Research Paper Example But when it comes to business, the intelligent person can easily detect commercial opportunities, or is good in mastering or avoiding business risks and keep the books balanced. At the advent of the twenty-first century, there is a new intellectual virtuoso: the symbol analyst or the master of change. This is the one who can read numbers and words in the computer screen and make reliable and useful projects. Through the information from the computer, the analyst can solve problems, communicate to other people and adjust easily to the changing times. Francis Galton, one of the founders of the modern psychological measurement in the late nineteenth century, believed that intelligence is hereditary, and so searched for offspring of the leaders of British society. But Galton also believed that intelligence is not confined to hereditary lineages. He devised means to test intelligence. The first intelligence measurements tested the person’s sensory acuity, i.e. an intelligent person can easily distinguish sounds of different loudness, or the brightness of lightness, and objects of different weights. (Gardner, 1999, p. 2) Gardner (1999) presented evidence that individuals have a range of capacities and potentials, and he called this phenomenon multiple intelligences. Individuals can use these intelligences in the different roles in society. An individual with multiple intelligences can perform multiple tasks. Gardner presented his argument on the question scholars and students of intelligence have been arguing about: Is intelligence singular? Or, is there such a thing as multiple intelligences? There is also another question Gardner would like to address: Is intelligence predominantly inherited? Darwin wrote in his time that men did not differ much in intelligence except in their efforts and hard work. The Western notion remains that intelligence is innate in a person. (Armstrong, 2009, p.