Stop and Frisk Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Stop and Frisk - Essay Example The trial court found him guilty of possession of a weapon by a prohibited possessor and possession of marijuana. The court of appeals reversed the decision claiming the standard required in Terry v. Ohio was not met. â€Å"Terry established that, in an investigatory stop based on reasonably grounded suspicion of criminal activity, the police must be positioned to act instantly if they have reasonable cause to suspect that the persons temporarily detained are armed and dangerous... Citing Terry, the Court further held that a driver, once outside the stopped vehicle, may be patted down for weapons if the officer reasonable concludes that the driver might be armed and dangerous... The Arizona Court of Appeals recognized that... once Officer Trevizo began questioning him on a matter unrelated to the traffic stop, patdown authority ceased to exist, absent reasonable suspicion that Johnson had engaged, or was about to engage, in criminal activity.† (Arizona,

Elie Wiesels Survival in Night Essay -- essays research papers

Night Elie Wiesel writes about his personal experience of the Holocaust in his memoir, Night. He is a Jewish man who is sent to a concentration camp, controlled by an infamous dictator, Hitler. Elie is stripped away everything that belongs to him. All that he has worked for in his life is taken away from him instantly. He is even separated from his mother and sister. On the other side of this he is fortunate to survive and tell his story. He describes the immense cruel treatment that he receives from the Nazis. Even after all of the brutal treatment and atrocities he experiences he does not hate the world and everything in it, along with not becoming a brute. In Night, he informs his reader of many examples on how a myriad of good people turn into brutes. They see horrific actions, therefore, they cannot help by becoming a brute. They experience their innocent family members being burned alive, innocent people dieing from starvation due to a minuscule proportion of food, and innocent people going to take a shower and not coming out because truly, it is a gas chamber and all f...

How Does Same Sex Marriage Affects in Decreasing Population Growth Essay

First, what is MARRIAGE? Marriage is a socially or ritually recognized union or legal contract between spouses that establishes rights and obligations between them, between them and their children. (From that statement, the word children are the most important thing in marriage, WHY? Because we all know having same sex marriage CANNOT produce a child) What is SAME SEX MARRIAGE? ————– Decrease of population growth caused by SAME SEX MARRIAGE Extending the benefits and status of â€Å"marriage† to couples who are intrinsically incapable of natural procreation (two men or two women) would dramatically change the social meaning of the institution. It would become impossible to argue that â€Å"marriage† is about encouraging the formation of life-long, potentially procreative (opposite-sex) relationships. The likely long-term result would be that fewer such relationships would be formed, fewer such couples would choose to procreate, and fewer babies would be born. Long term consequences are not worth the risk. The first and most obvious consequence to allowing gay marriage would be the drastic decrease in population. What if everyone decided that they were a homosexual? It may sound a little extreme, but if that happen the human race as we know it would cease to exist. Facts of decreasing population growth caused by same sex marriage: The effect on the population would be that there would be no children born of that union. Since it takes a male and a female to produce offspring, and since, by definition, a same-sex marriage would contain 2 persons of the same sex, they would contribute 0% to the population growth. Disadvantage of legalizing same sex marriage: 1. The negative side of same-sex marriage is that some see it as godless. 2. It is not acceptable by some religious orders. 3. Some societies ostracise those involved. 4. They can’t have kids w/o outside help. 5. Many countries do not recognise it and any rights associated with ‘normal’ marriage are not given. 6. TOP 10 HARM EFFECTS OF LEGALIZING SAME SEX MARRIAGE: 1. Taxpayers, consumers, and businesses would be forced to subsidize homosexual relationships. If same-sex marriage were legalized, all employers, public and private, large or small, would be required to offer spousal benefits to homosexual couples. You, as a taxpayer, consumer, or small business owner, would be forced to bear the expense of subsidizing homosexual relationships-including their higher health care costs. 2. Schools would teach that homosexual relationships are identical to heterosexual ones. A lesbian who teaches 8th grade sex education in Massachusetts told NPR that she teaches her children how lesbians use â€Å"a sex toy† to have intercourse. If anyone objects, she says, â€Å"Give me a break. It’s legal now.† One father was jailed after protesting because his son-a kindergarten student-was given a book about same-sex couples. 3. Freedom of conscience and religious liberty would be threatened. Churches and non-profit organizations could be stripped of their tax exemptions and religious psychologists, social workers, and marriage counselors could be denied licensing if they â€Å"discriminate† against homosexuals. Individual believers who disapprove of homosexual relationships may face a choice at work between forfeiting their freedom of speech and being fired. 4. Fewer people would marry. In Massachusetts, where same-sex â€Å"marriages† began in May 2004, only 52% of same-sex couples who live together had even bothered to â€Å"marry† by the end of 2006. Among opposite-sex couples, the comparable figure is 91%. In the Netherlands, the figures are even lower, with only 12% of homosexual couples having entered legal civil â€Å"marriages.† Giving the option of same-sex â€Å"marriage† would tell society that marriage in general is â€Å"optional,† not normative, and fewer people would marry. 5. Fewer people would remain monogamous and sexually faithful. Among homosexual men, sex with multiple partners is tolerated and often expected. One study in the Netherlands showed that homosexual men with a steady partner had an average of eight sexual partners per year. If these behaviours are incorporated into what society affirms as â€Å"marriage,† then  fidelity among heterosexuals would likely decline as well. 6. Fewer people would remain married for a lifetime. Even a homosexual psychologist has acknowledged that â€Å"gay and lesbian couples dissolve their relationships more frequently than heterosexual couples.† The same Dutch study that showed the high rate of homosexual promiscuity also showed that the average homosexual male â€Å"partnership† lasts only 1.5 years. As the transience of homosexual relationships is incorporated in society’s image of â€Å"marriage,† we can expect that fewer heterosexuals would maintain a lifelong commitment. 7. Fewer children would be raised by a married mother and father. Social science has clearly proven clearly that children do best when raised by their own married biological mother and father. Yet legalizing same-sex â€Å"marriage† would put an official stamp of approval on the deliberate creation of permanently motherless or fatherless families. As scholar Stanley Kurtz says, this â€Å"would likely speed us on the way towards more frequent out-of-wedlock birth, and skyrocketing family dissolution.† 8. More children would grow up fatherless. Most children who live with only one biological parent will live with their mothers, and lesbian couples are more likely to be raising children than homosexual male couples. Therefore, with same-sex â€Å"marriage,† more children would suffer the specific negative consequences of fatherlessness, which include higher rates of youth incarceration among males and adolescent pregnancy among females. Research also shows negative outcomes for the children of sperm donors, who are used by some lesbian couples. 9. Birth rates would fall. Same-sex â€Å"marriage† would eliminate the incentive for procreation that is implicit in defining marriage as a male-female union. There is already evidence of at least a correlation between same-sex â€Å"marriage† and low birth and fertility rates, both in the U.S. and abroad. While some people still harbour outdated fears about â€Å"over-population,† demographers now understand that declining birth rates harm society. 10. Demands for legalization of  polygamy would grow. If a person’s choice of spouse cannot be limited based on the sex of one’s partner, it is hard to see how it could be limited based on the number of spouses either. This argument is already being pressed in the courts. ADDITIONAL IDEA About same sex marriage The first laws in modern times enabling same-sex marriage were enacted during the first decade of the 21st century. As of 19 August 2013, fifteen countries (Argentina, Belgium, Brazil, Canada, Denmark, France, Iceland, Netherlands, New Zealand, Norway, Portugal, Spain, South Africa, Sweden, Uruguay), and several sub-national jurisdictions (parts of Mexico and the United States), allow same-sex couples to marry. A law has been passed by the United Kingdom, effective in England and Wales, which is expected to be fully in force in 2014. Polls in various countries show that there is rising support for legally recognizing same-sex marriage across race, ethnicity, age, religion, political affiliation, and socioeconomic status. Introduction of same-sex marriage laws has varied by jurisdiction, being variously accomplished through a legislative change to marriage laws, a court ruling based on constitutional guarantees of equality, or by direct popular vote (via a ballot initiative or a refer endum). The recognition of same-sex marriage is a political, social, human rights and civil rights issue, as well as a religious issue in many nations and around the world, and debates continue to arise over whether same-sex couples should be allowed marriage, be required to hold a different status (a civil union), or be denied recognition of such rights. Some analysts state that financial, psychological and physical well-being are enhanced by marriage, and that children of same-sex couples benefit from being raised by two parents within a legally recognized union supported by society’s institutions. Court documents filed by American scientific associations also state that singling out gay men and women as ineligible for marriage both stigmatizes and invites public discrimination against them. The American Anthropological Association avers that social science research does not support the view

Article Critique The Journal Of School Psychology

Article Critique Alyssa J. Brincka Arizona State University Article Critique The Journal of School Psychology published an article in 2014 titled Divorce, approaches to learning, and children’s academic achievement: A longitudinal analysis of mediated and moderated effects. The article was funded through grants from the National Institute of Child Health and Human Development and the Institute of Education Sciences (Anthony, DiPerna, Amato, 2014). Lead author Christopher J. Anthony is a Ph.D. candidate in School Psychology and fellow at Pennsylvania State University (Meet the Fellows, 2014) and is studying under secondary author James Clyde DiPerna, Department Chair and Associate Professor of Education in the School of Psychology, also at Pennsylvania State University (Department of Educational Psychology, Counseling, and Special Education., n.d.). The third author, Paul R. Amato, is the Arnold and Bette Hoffman Professor of Family Sociology and Demography at Pennsylvania State University (Paul R. Amato, n.d.). Anthony, DiPerna, and Amato (2014) used data from the Early Childhood Longitudinal Study – Kindergarten to analyze the relationship between parental divorce and a child’s academic achievement, and the potential role that approaches to learning (classroom behaviors) might play on this relationship. The abstract states that these approaches to learning were able to reduce the effects of parental divorce on a child’s education 12% in reading and 18% inShow MoreRelatedJournal Article Critique of an Empirical Analysis of Trends in Psychology989 Words   |  4 PagesArticle: An Empirical Analysis of Trends in Psychology By Richard W. Robins, Samuel D. Gosling and Kenneth H. Craik Presented by: Cassandra Brown AU ID: 3130858 PSYC 290 Journal Article Critique 1 Tutor: Cristela D’Elia June 1st, 2013 I. 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Valentine, James Lindsay, and Barbara Nye, was published in the Journal of Educational Psychology in 1999, and it delves into how various after-school activities impact academic performance.Read MoreBehavioral Study Of Obedience By Stanley Milgram1053 Words   |  5 Pagesâ€Å"Behavioral Study of Obedience† by Stanley Milgram (1963) Stanley Milgram Yale University Group 1: Wasis Ali, Christopher Okpala, Michelle Walden, Estefany Majano General Psychology 1010 Ms. Thompson Spring Semester, March 17, 2014 Introduction In 1961, The Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology published an article by Stanley Milgram, a researcher at Yale University, and his study testing obedience towards political influence vs towards morals and values taught from an early age (Milgram

Proverb Definition and Examples

A proverb is a short, pithy statement of a general truth, one that condenses common experience into memorable form. Or, as defined by Miguel de Cervantes, a short sentence based on long experience. Adjective: proverbial. Many proverbs rely on antithesis: Out of sight, out of mind; Penny wise, pound foolish; A bird in the hand is worth two in the bush. In classical rhetoric, the amplification of a proverb was one of the exercises known as the progymnasmata.  The study of proverbs is called paremiology. Etymology From the Latin, word Examples and Observations [Proverbs are] brief, memorable, and intuitively convincing formulations of socially sanctioned advice.Injustice anywhere is a threat to justice everywhere.Proverbs are strategies for dealing with situations. Another name for strategies might be attitudes.Pop Cultural ProverbsWe owe many of our current proverbs to pop cultural sources, such as songs, movies, TV shows, and commercials. Sometimes these sources bring a preexisting saying to wider popularity, while other times they launch brand-new oral traditions. Think of If you build it, they will come (from the movie Field of Dreams, based on a W.P. Kinsella story) or Freedom’s just another word for nothing left to lose (from the song Me and Bobby McGee, written by Kris Kristofferson and Fred Foster).Proverbs and AphorismsThe aphorism is a personal observation inflated into a universal truth, a private posing as a general. A proverb is anonymous human history compressed to the size of a seed.Proverbs as Rhetorical Exercises- [ P]roverbs are either persuasive or expository. Examples of contemporary proverbs that persuade people to action are The squeaky wheel gets the grease; Wake up and smell the roses; and The early bird gets the worm. Proverbs that dissuade people from doing things are If you drive, dont drink and Dont count your chickens before they hatch. Explanatory proverbs include Rolling stones gather no moss and The spirit is willing, but the flesh is weak. Any of these proverbs can be amplified according to the ancient directions for doing so: begin by praising either the wisdom of the proverb or its author (if the author is known); paraphrase or explain the proverbs meaning; give proof of the proverbs truth or accuracy; give comparative and contrasting examples; supply testimony from another author; compose an epilogue.Frank Sullivan on the Lighter Side of ProverbsPerhaps we should have a general reconditioning, or reupholstering, of proverbs. It could be done without too much trouble, and econ omically. New materials would not be needed. The old materials that Shakespeare and his great contemporary, Anon, used are still as good as new, and cant be bettered. You cant get stuff like that today. A simple rearrangement of a batch of the more prominent proverbs might do everybody a lot of good. Pronunciation PRAHV-urb Also Known As Adage, maxim, sententia Sources Paul Hernadi, The Tropical Landscape of  Proverbia.  Style, Spring 1999 Martin Luther King, Jr., â€Å"Letter from Birmingham Jail,† April 1963 Kenneth Burke,  The Philosophy of Literary Form Stefan Kanfer, Proverbs or Aphorisms?  Time, July 11, 1983 Sharon Crowley and Debra Hawhee,  Ancient Rhetorics for Contemporary Students, 3rd ed. Pearson, 2004 Frank Sullivan, A Watched Proverb Butters No Parsnips.  The Night the Old Nostalgia Burned Down. Little, Brown, 1953

Motivations Matter The Danger Of Overreaching - 3976 Words

Motivations Matter: The Danger of Overreaching POL: 4885 â€Å"Economic sanction† is frequently used in discourse with the incorrect implication that it is a single course of economic action. In fact, the opposite is true. It actually refers to an entire class of nonviolent actions that are each unique and cannot be argued as whole. Part of the appeal is that sanctions can be a mere nuisance, such as a limit on luxury goods like Rolex watches or Cuban cigars, but on the other hand they have the potential to cripple entire economies or level entire sectors of commerce. To understand it is necessary to make distinctions between them in each individual case. Failure to do so can result in ill-informed, sweeping assertions that have the potential to be dangerous if left uncorrected. Common explanations argue that the most important factors to consider when trying to understand the nature of sanctions are the power dynamic between the sender and receiver and level of international support, but I argue that the most important thing to con sider when trying to understand the nature of sanctions is the motivation behind them. Put differently, the behavior is that is being pressured to change. Depending on the behavior both sides may be very committed or only marginally committed to the sanction effort. Why does the goal have the strongest effect on the type that is used and why shouldn’t the argument for or against the â€Å"success† of sanctions continue? Using a few specific cases thisShow MoreRelatedThe Use Of Coercive Diplomacy On American Politics2909 Words   |  12 Pagesdiscussions of economic sanctions today is that it is too often focused only on the success of sanctions; treating all cases as a single unit that can be simply classified one way or the other, successful or unsuccessful. Such a debate is distracting and overreaching because arguing one way or another for sanctions as a whole is like arguing in absolutes for or against the success of diets. It would be silly to say that diets are always or never successful because there are so many influencing factors to beRead MoreAmerica s War On Drugs3748 Words   |  15 Pages The number of those fallen will be calculated by the legalization of drugs. There deaths can be compared to a soldier killed in battle if drugs become legal. The stories of convicted felons families, friends, and communities are shaped by the overreaching arm of the prison industrial complex. This â€Å"war on drugs,† which all subsequent presidents have embraced, has created a behemoth of courts, jails, and prisons that have done little to decrease the use of drugs while doing much to create confusionRead MoreTop 1 Cause for Project Failure65023 Words   |  261 Pagesprivate sector Programme! 1. [pic] Anish Mathai Mathew [PMP|MBA] Temenos T24 PROGRAM MANAGER at Union National Bank @Karl: Thanks for your comment and the great example. Guess in that case you d agree that LUCK (no matter how small), does play a role ;) .... [Mathew@PM4K] @ http://www.anishmathaimathew.blogspot.com 2. [pic] Nico Viergever Independent Management Consulting Professional / Trainer PRINCE2 MSP Another discussionRead MoreCorporation (Fisch) Outline Penn Law Essay62808 Words   |  252 PagesInherent/Implicit Authority: Gives a general agent the power to bind a principal, whether disclosed or undisclosed, to an unauthorized K as long as the general agent would ordinarily have the power to enter such a K and the third party does not know matters stand differently in this case. Rst. 2nd 8A, 161, 194. Rst. 3rd 2.05, 2.06, 2.07.(based on the general agent power and role.) †¢ Gallant Ins. Co. v. Isaac (Ind. App. 2000)(there is no manifestation made by the insurance company

Harmonizing Research, Practice Free Essays

string(128) " Louie Suthers of Australia notes that in her varied country one can see differences in starting ages of pre-primary education\." Harmonizing Research, Practice, and Policy in Early Childhood Music: A Chorus of International Voices (Part 2) Lori A. Custodero Lily Chen-Hafteck a b a b Music and Music Education program at Teachers College, Columbia University Music Department, Kean University, New Jersey Version of record first published: 07 Aug 2010. To cite this article: Lori A. We will write a custom essay sample on Harmonizing Research, Practice or any similar topic only for you Order Now Custodero Lily Chen-Hafteck (2008): Harmonizing Research, Practice, and Policy in Early Childhood Music: A Chorus of International Voices (Part 2), Arts Education Policy Review, 109:3, 3-8 To link to this article: http://dx. doi. org/10. 3200/AEPR. 109. 3. 3-8 PLEASE SCROLL DOWN FOR ARTICLE Full terms and conditions of use: http://www. tandfonline. com/page/terms-and-conditions This article may be used for research, teaching, and private study purposes. Any substantial or systematic reproduction, redistribution, reselling, loan, sub-licensing, systematic supply, or distribution in any form to anyone is expressly forbidden. The publisher does not give any warranty express or implied or make any representation that the contents will be complete or accurate or up to date. The accuracy of any instructions, formulae, and drug doses should be independently verified with primary sources. The publisher shall not be liable for any loss, actions, claims, proceedings, demand, or costs or damages whatsoever or howsoever caused arising directly or indirectly in connection with or arising out of the use of this material. Copyright  © 2008 Heldref Publications Harmonizing Research, Practice, and Policy in Early Childhood Music: A Chorus of International Voices (Part 2) LORI A. CUSTODERO and LILY CHEN-HAFTECK Editor’s note. Lori A. Custodero and Lily Chen-Hafteck served as guest editors for both Part 1 and Part 2 of the special issue International Policies on Early Childhood Music Education: Local and Global Issues Revealed. n the November/December 2007 issue of Arts Education Policy Review, readers were introduced to early childhood music policies in Brazil, England, Kenya, Puerto Rico, South Africa, and the United States. In this collection, a second ensemble of experts from Australia, China, Denmark, Korea, Israel, and Taiwan joins them. Like the previous issue, these authors presented papers or workshops at an International Society for Music Education, Early Childhood Music Education Seminar in Taipei in 2006 and wrote new articles for inclusion here. They responded to the same charge as the previous authors to answer the following questions: †¢ What policies currently exist in your country for early childhood music education? †¢ To what extent do these policies meet the needs of children in your country? †¢ How are teachers prepared to teach early childhood music in your country? †¢ In what ways do local and global cultures figure into the policies and practices of early childhood music in your country? Additionally, we offered the following questions, to be addressed at the author’s discretion: †¢ Do different musical cultures require different instructional approaches? And, conversely, are certain music instructional approaches culture specific? How does this impact policy and practice of early childhood music in your country? †¢ What are the potential risks and rewards of mandating multicultural musical experiences for young children? Finally, we asked authors to address any issues specific to their regions and to make concrete suggestions regarding policy for their countries. Salient themes emerged addressing what was taught and who was responsible for that content. In many ways these two conditions are inseparable, interrelated through the social nature of musical experiences. In these accounts, we also see ways in which content and delivery shape reception and how that process, in turn, defines and is defined by culture. Examining these geographical contexts raises questions about atti- I tudes, practices, and policies concerning early childhood music education that have significance for many of us. We chose three threads of inquiry from the many that weave these single texts into a textual fugue: (a) ensions between child and adult culture; (b) competing influences by global, regional, and local agencies on standards and curricula; and (c) expectations for teacher knowledge and preparation. Competing Cultures: Child and Adult The existence of a musical culture in early childhood, which is distinctly different from the adult culture, is based on studies showing similarities of vocal contours used in communication between infants and mothers ac ross cultures (Papousek 1996), as well as research regarding the differences between music made by children and adults (e. . , Bjorkvold 1992; Campbell 2007; Littleton 1998; Marsh 1995; Moorhead and Pond 1941). Sven-Erik Holgersen’s article on early childhood music in Scandinavia describes practices in Denmark, Sweden, and Norway that are sensitive to the child’s culture. The cultural clash in those regional systems exists between programs that favor an elemental or natural approach to education for the young based on the free play aesthetic and those that see music Vol. 109, No. 3, January/February 2008 3 as a mode of artistic expression requiring learned skills. Lily Chen-Hafteck and Zhoyua Xu and, separately, Jennifer Chau-Ying Leu found preschools in Chinesespeaking countries to have a strong sense of adult culture. Most parents and teachers believe school should stress academic learning rather than play, so that children can achieve high scores on tests and examinations. Chinese culture also stresses study and hard work as important for academic success. In Korea, Nam-Hee Lim and Shunah Chung found that adults believe young children need close supervision and guidance from teachers and parents in their development. Therefore, children’s natural tendency to be playful and creative is not recognized as a core value in school; potential for future success drives decisions. These cultural differences are interactive with and reflective of current conditions and regional history. In China, for example, books were printed with movable type as early as the eighth century, whereas in Europe copies were still drawn by hand until the 1400s. Such a long history of text accessibility elevated reading and writing to a valued skill that was recognizable and sought (Smith 1991). Societal values may offer another lens to interpret early academic emphasis, such as those espoused by Confucius, for whom morality and caring for others, especially family, were primary. In terms of contemporary conditions, Louie Suthers of Australia notes that in her varied country one can see differences in starting ages of pre-primary education. You read "Harmonizing Research, Practice" in category "Papers" In Denmark, the children start at three years of age and continue for four years. In China, pre-primary education starts at four years of age and continues for three years, although care is available in each country mentioned from birth. Also of note, the average student teacher ratio in China is 28:1, differing from Hong Kong’s average ratio of 16:1. The older starting age in China may perpetuate (or reflect interest in) the schooling culture. Leu’s discussion of the importance of family context is relevant to this point, inasmuch as it may provide the space for child culture 4 Arts Education Policy Review to flourish while adult culture is operating at school. Claudia Gluschankof writes about the purposeful creation of materials for the child culture with the development of the New Hebrew Culture in the Israeli territories during the early 1900s. Preschools were created based on the Froebel playcentered model and provide an unusual case in the concentrated production of children’s music in a language that had no such repertoire prior to the kindergartens establishment. The conscious choice to provide young children with cultural tools for understanding at the earliest stages of a community is reminiscent of Sheila Woodward’s discussion concerning the importance of children in nation building in South Africa, featured in the previous issue of this journal. In her conclusion, Gluschankof raises important questions concerning this created canon of songs and the lack of repertoire for Arab-speaking children. Using the idea of child culture as a lens for viewing cultural and educational policies provides a useful way to understand differences and similarities in political systems that define the worlds in which we teach, research, and cohabitate. Such understanding may lead to more focused and meaningful questions that may reveal inequities or alternative directions in music education worthy of exploration. Considerations of these policies regarding conceptions of adulthood and childhood lead directly to curricular influences that we view from a related dialectic: the local and global. Local and Global Influences: Child and World In the first part of this symposium, we focused on the tension between small and large scaled views of what should be taught, each serving a different societal need. In the second part, we speak more specifically to the notion of a national curriculum because it is mentioned in each of the articles collected here. We are interested in questions dealing with how these personal and collective influences affect children’s music education: â€Å"Does governmentmandated standardized curriculum limit possibilities or insure access of quality to all children? † and â€Å"What is the exemplar to which music education should be standardized? † The first question is meant to generate critical thinking regarding what and how policymakers might send messages about music education in the early years; the second is meant to question assumptions we might have surrounding best practice and the cultural nuances that shape it. Suthers, discussing Australia’s situation, is mindful that there is no national music curriculum for pre-primary school and points to a recent reform movement in music education that excluded early childhood experiences. She notes that this leaves teachers feeling isolated and that their work is undervalued. Alternatively, Gluschankoff discusses the children’s music written in Hebrew as somewhat ideological and makes suggestions for addressing the inclusion of additional materials to meet the needs of a multicultural society. One of the ways in which the national curriculum may become nationalistic is in the mandates or recommendations around singing repertoire. The role played by singing in socialization is significant and has been used for centuries to transmit cultural values, to teach language, and to establish qualities of rhythmic energy that typify a way of being; Dissanayake (2000) makes the case for mutuality and belonging as ways the arts are meaningful to us. Inasmuch as collective singing creates a sense of belonging, we have a responsibility to monitor the ways in which we look at the child and the world (see Leu’s article describing ecological systems and Lim and Chung on the supportive role of adults). Chen-Hafteck and Xu also write about the importance of family singing and the differing role of school music. When local knowledge is replaced by chauvinism, music can be decontextualized. Because musicality is deeply rooted in shared experience, (Trevarthen 1999) we need to guard the personal and not expose children’s vulnerability to politicization. Our concern regarding global trends also involves the perception that globalization means movement toward Downloaded by [Macquarie University] at 14:58 28 March 2013 Western ideals. Attention to the local, once again, is necessary to adequately implement any change. In China, for example, although the new educational policies follow the global trends rhetorically, espousing learning through play and stressing personal expression and creativity, its usefulness is severely hampered by conflicting views in the local tradition regarding a deep belief in academic success as the consummate benchmark. Holgerson considers a similar dissonance between local needs and governmental responsibility to all children through the philosophical lens of Bildung, a generative model that keeps the questions about such disconnections at the forefront of practice. Downloaded by [Macquarie University] at 14:58 28 March 2013 Teacher Knowledge: Child and Music Practice policies are perhaps best viewed vis-a-vis teacher preparation— what do we value as knowledge? For most of us, early childhood musical practice involves understanding as much as we can about children while keeping the cultural context in mind. This might include individual experiences that contribute to their uniqueness and developmental trends that might give indications about what to expect in terms of maturation. What knowledge do we need of music? In this issue, the authors discuss the importance of a diverse and culturally responsive repertoire, singing range, quality of recordings, appropriate use of instruments, and sound sensitivity. In this collection of articles, the authors suggest that these two knowledge areas are rarely considered together and that they exist in bifurcation, at least conceptually. Across the globe, there are those who are considered to have knowledge of the child in context (families or generalist teachers) and those who have knowledge of the child in music (specialists). Holgersen describes this dichotomy in practical terms—music activities and music teaching. The goals of using music are indeed varied and the complexity of music leads to multiple possibilities worthy of exploration. Among the authors there is a consensus concerning the need for collaboration between the two areas of expertise with several concrete recommendations. Reasons for this common phenomenon center on the systems in place for teacher preparation and the institutional divisions of disciplines; authors advocate for more carefully structured professional development to help bridge the disciplinary divide. Knowing the body of work of these authors, we are familiar with their efforts to form partnerships with local child care specialists and have been involved with such partnerships at our universities. Child and Adult It is noteworthy that many of the responses are about memories of musical adults who were influential in their music education. Graham Welch (pers. comm. ) offers: I was educated in a Church of England Primary school in London . . . where we sang, often with the local Vicar leading on the piano. I can remember his enthusiasm, quick tempo and intensity of keyboard playing. F or most of us, early childhood musical practice involves understanding as much as we can about children while keeping the cultural context in mind. We believe them to be some of the most meaningful opportunities for our own teacher knowledge. Policy and Personal Voice In addition to the authors featured here, to inform our sense of the historical significance of current situations regarding early childhood music and the breadth to which our profession defines policy, we asked our colleagues involved in international musical education about their memories of early childhood music education and their relationship to policy with the following questions: 1. Reflecting on your childhood before age eight, what were the influences of policy on your music education? . How does this compare with today’s situation for young children? Responses were varied and provided insight through a self-reflective lens. We looked at the seven responses regarding their relatedness to our three topics and to how policy can reach us as individuals in a long-lasting way. Alda Oliveira (pers. comm. ) from Brazil also reflected on a teacher: The first time I went to school I was seven years old. At this age I choose to take piano lessons with a private piano teacher. She was a marvelous teacher since her method included not only playing by reading and singing the notes, but also playing by ear and some popular songs. Family members had a strong musical presence in June Boyce Tillman’s (pers. comm. ) childhood in England: â€Å"My music was regularly singing with and listening to the playing of my paternal grandfather who was the village dance band pianist. † Margre van Gestel (pers. comm. ) of The Netherlands also wrote of related experiences: I had the privilege to be surrounded by a musical family. We had a piano in our home and I spent lots of time behind the piano in my grandmother’s house. My uncles and aunts could play the piano and as a child I enjoyed listening to them. One of my aunts was the ballet teacher in the village and from the age of four I was in her dancing classes. It was normal in my family to sing and play. My father had a good voice and was a soloist in the church choir when he was young; he played the clarinet and was a folkdance Vol. 109, No. 3, January/February 2008 5 teacher during scouting activities. I guess my days were filled with (live) music, not in courses but just all day long. Van Gestel shared a record of family influence: In my baby dairy, when I was 8 months old, my mother wrote: â€Å"Today she clapped her hands. She probably learned that from her grandmother! When you sing Clap your hands she reacts immediately. † One year old: â€Å"When we sing Oh my daddy (a popular song in the sixties) she sings along, ‘daddy, daddy. ’† In South Africa, apartheid led to decisions about schooling for Caroline Van Niekerk (pers. omm. ) that indirectly influenced her musical education by removing her from the direct influences of the national educational system of that time. She also spoke of a contemporary situation in which fighting governmental policies was necessary and of the strength we have to overcome questionable decisions: I had a desperate call just yesterday from someone with a story of how their education faculty, in training teachers for the F oundation Phase, wants to remove music as an optional area of specialization for students. We are now all doing everything in our power to protest such a prospect loudly. But I have also seen what I regard as a promising development, and similar to the situation I witnessed in California when we lived there, more than twenty years ago—as parents of young children realize that the formal education system is not necessarily going to provide their children with what they believe is important, and especially as regards the arts, including music, they start to take responsibility for those things themselves. ntil I was about [age] five) could not get my lessons paid for. Had the place still be in that county I would have been entitled to a bursary to pay for lessons and I would have been able to learn a second instrument. But without that my parents could only afford piano lessons. I am still sad about this, which was simply a matter of geography and the local control of resources. Child and Music The same issues featured authors raised are apparent in the additional pro fessionals’ responses: the lack of resources and teachers. Gary McPherson (pers. comm. links personal memories with policies, of which he sees little change, from his Australian childhood: I have a vague memory of singing in a school choir that was [led] by a general classroom teacher when I was about six or seven, but the group was nothing special so it had no impact on my subsequent musical development. . . . I went back some years ago and had a look at the way music was described in the school curriculum (particularly primary school curriculum). There were all sorts of aids and resources for general primary teachers to use but music wasn’t typically taught well in schools. To be honest, I’m not sure the status of music in the curriculum is any different. Downloaded by [Macquarie University] at 14:58 28 March 2013 These testimonies to strong and positive adult influence suggest that family education is important, as Leu and others advocate in this symposium, with the caveat that the experiences described are with adults perceived as musicians. This suggests we need to exercise caution in defining people in terms of limited musicality and that music education of our children means their children will be better educated. It is interesting that teachers were remembered for the affective qualities they conveyed and through a curricular stance that was relevant to the child. Child and World The relationships among local, state, and global influences are also reflected in these personal accounts. Many of these music professionals took private music lessons and considered their experiences to be nonpolicy driven. Oliveira (pers. comm. ) mentioned the involvement of musicians in music education policy—specifically, the Canto Orfeonico policy under the leadership of composer Villa-Lobos. She recalls that this policy influenced her school education, which included â€Å"group singing and elementary level music theory. † As already discussed, group singing is a common vehicle for politicization. Like Gluschonkof’s report of Israeli songs contributing to nation-building, Boyce Tillman (pers. comm. ) noted that: At [age] seven I went to a school where we had massed singing in the Hall when we sang British folksongs, many of which I still know by heart. We had a book called the New National Song book, which was a deliberate attempt after the war to restore a sense of nationhood. This was used throughout my school career. 6 Arts Education Policy Review Welch wrote of intersecting influences of church and state: I discovered later that the London County Council was very supportive of music in schools generally, although my local experiences as a child were as much to do with the link to the Church and the established ethos of including singing as a natural part of the school day. Ana Lucia Frega (pers. comm. ) describes a similar situation in her native Argentina. Early childhood music courses were not always taught by a specialist . . . his means that some problems arose: some of the K-general teachers [choose materials that] do not really fit the [appropriate] children range of voices, and which tend to create vocal difficulties. He notes the longevity of such a workable match: â€Å"On returning to the school many years later for my first teaching post, I discovered that the school’s policy toward music had continued, with the same range of events a nd activities in place. † In the previous issue, Young discussed the unprecedented commitment England has made to the arts—specifically music, a commitment Welch reiterates. Boyce Tillman recalls a time when the resources from the national government were in local hands, resulting in inequitable opportunity: At [age] seven I started piano lessons but because the place we lived in was then in Southampton and not in the County of Hampshire (to which we are very close and in which we had been Although our policymaking systems move slowly, and are not always moving in the direction we would like, there is hope in the growing numbers of people who care about music education. Oliviera writes: â€Å"at least we can feel the difference between my generation and today’s generation. Perhaps our aim is to prepare children who grow up to be like von Gestel, with the same rich resources at hand for creating meaningful experiences: Music (and especially making and teaching music) was and is a part of my everyday life, and really I can’t imagine a life without singing together and making music. It makes my life worth living. References Bjorkvold, J. R. 1 992. The muse within: Creativity and communication, song and play from childhood through maturity. Trans. W. H. Halverson, New York: HarperCollins. Campbell, P. S. 2007. Musical meaning in children’s cultures. In International handbook of research in arts education, ed. L. Bresler, 881–94. Dorderecht, The Netherlands: Springer. Dissanayake, E. 2000. Art and intimacy. Seattle: University of Washington Press. Littleton, D. 1998. Music learning and child’s play. General Music Today 12 (1): 8–15. Marsh, K. 1995. Children’s singing games: Composition in the playground? Research Studies in Music Education 4:2–11. Moorhead, G. E. , and D. Pond. 1941. Music of young children. 1 Chant. Santa Barbara, CA: Pillsbury Foundation for the Advancement of Music Education. Papousek, H. 1996. Musicality in infancy research: Biological and cultural origins of early musicality. In Musical beginnings: Origins and development of musical competence, ed. I. Deliege and J. Sloboda, 37–55. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press. Smith, D. C. 1991. Foundations of modern Chinese education. In The Confucian continuum, ed. D. C. Smith, 1–64. New York: Praeger. Trevarthen, C. 1999. Musicality and the intrinsic motive pulse: Evidence from psychobiology and human communication. Musicae Scientiae (Special Issue: Rhythm, Musical Narrative, and Origins of Human Communication), 155–211. Lori A. Custodero is an associate professor and program coordinator of the Music Downloaded by [Macquarie University] at 14:58 28 March 2013 and Music Education program at Teachers College, Columbia University, where she has established an early childhood music concentration that integrates pedagogy and research through both theory and practice. She served on the International Society for Music Education’s Commission for Early Childhood for six years and is involved in research and teaching projects in a variety of countries. Lily Chen-Hafteck is an associate professor of music education and assistant chair of the Music Department at Kean University, New Jersey. Originally from Hong Kong, she has held teaching and research positions at the University of Pretoria in South Africa, the University of Surrey Roehampton in England, and Hong Kong Baptist University. She serves on the editorial board of the International Journal of Music Education, Asia-Pacific Journal for Arts Education and Music Education Research International. She is the chair of the International Society for Music Education Young Professionals Focus Group. Vol. 109, No. 3, January/February 2008 7 Downloaded by [Macquarie University] at 14:58 28 March 2013 ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? How to cite Harmonizing Research, Practice, Papers